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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



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UNITED STATES OF AMEEICA. 












A BRAHMIN. 



(From a iiatn'e d^'aiving.) 



NATIVE LIFE in INDIA 



BEING 



Sketches of the Social and Religious 
Characteristics of the Hindus 



BY THE 

REV. HENRY RICE 

MADRAS 



REVISED 




PACIFIC PRESS PUBLISHING COMPANY 

OAKLAND, CAL. 
SAN FRANCISCO, NEW YORK, LONDON 



\^ 



Entered accordhig to Act of Congress^ in the year i8gi, by 
PACIFIC PRESS PUBLISHING CO., 

In the office of the Librarian of Congress, Washington, D. C. 



y. 






PREFACE. 

Having for upwards of eighteen years moved freely among 
all classes of the people in various parts of India, and hav- 
ing taken notes of what I have seen and heard, I have ven- 
tured to put them together in this little book. Many of these 
pages, especially those on the manners and customs of the 
people, have been read over to an educated Brahmin of 
good family and position, who vouches for their general ac- 
curacy. For what has not come directly under my own ob- 
servation I am indebted to other sources, especially to Dr. 
Cornish's invaluable Census Report. To all such I desire to 
express my obligations. 

In no part of the world, perhaps, is it truer that what is 
said of one part of the country may not be equally applicable 
to another. I have, therefore, only incidentally alluded to 
Mysore and Travancore, as the manners and customs of 
the people of those provinces are in many respects different 
from those of the other parts of South India. As regards 
Travancore, there is an admirable book on the subject, en- 
titled "The Land of Charity," by my esteemed friend, the 
Rev. S. Mateer, of Trevandrum. As regards Mysore, a pop- 
ular account of the present-day life of the people has, I be- 
lieve, still to be written. I have also alluded only briefly to 
the Mohammedans, as they do not st; ictly come under the 
scope of the title of this little book. 

That the perusal of these pages may lead to increased in- 
terest in the people of South India, and to more earnest and 
enlarged efforts for their evangelization, is my sincere desire 
and fervent prayer. Henry Rice. 

(V) 



PUBLISHERS' NOTE. 

In the present increase of interest in foreign missions, the 
publishers take pleasure in presenting to the public, as one 
of the volumes of the Young People's Library, the follow- 
ing pages. The book was first published by the Religious 
Tract Society of London. The matter and cuts have been 
purchased by the present publishers for America. The title, 
"Native Life in South India," has been changed to the more 
euphonious and shorter term, "Native Life in India." The 
book, however, does not include all of South India, as stated 
in the author's preface; but as it treats of the more important 
part of India, and as the system of caste i . similar in principle 
throughout the country, this work gives the reader a gen- 
eral idea of Indian customs, manners, and religions. In the 
revision of the work the object has been to simplify, for the 
benefit of the young. But very little has been omitted— in 
one instance a page nearly of Indian words which might 
possibly satisfy the curiosity of the learned, but would le of 
no benefit to the general reader; in a few other instances 
some of the author's opinions, comparisons, and conclusions 
concerning the conversion, or Christianizing, of India, which, 
to the publishers, do not seem to be warranted by the Scrip- 
tures of truth. Not one fact, however, pertaining to the sub- 
ject matter of the book, has been omitted, and it is beheved 
-that the conservative revision which the book has undergone 
and the form in which it is presented to the public will ren- 
der it more interesting to the reader, and of greater advan- 
tage to the purchaser, than the original work. To some read- 
ers the first three chapters, pertaining to the geographical 
features of the country and the various castes, may be dry 
and prosy, but it is sincerely hoped that they will proceed, 
for the book grows continually more interesting. That it 
may arouse within the readers' hearts stronger desires and 
purposes to help enlighten those who are in the darkness of 
error, is the prayer of The Publishers. 



CONTEHTS, 



CHAPTER I. 

Some Geographical, Climatic, and Linguistic Characteristics 
of the Madras Presidency - - - - - ii 

CHAPTER II. 

CASTES AND SECTS. 

The Priesthood — The Warrior Caste — The Trading Caste— 
The Agricultural Caste — The Shepherd Caste — The Ar- 
tisan Caste 21 

CHAPTER III. 
CASTES AND SECTS (Continued). 

The Writer Caste— The Weaver Caste — The Agricultural 
Laboring Caste — The Potter Caste — Satani, or Mixed 
Caste — The Fishing and Hunting Caste — The Palm-culti? 
vating Caste — The Barber Caste — The Washerman Caste 
— The Pariahs — Mohammedans - - - " 34 

CHAPTER IV. 

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 

Outward Appearance of the Hindus — Sectarian Marks — The 
Dress of Men and Women — Fondness for Jewelry — Mode 
of Wearing Hair — Their Method of Visiting Europeans 
— Forms of Salutation — Houses — Food - - 45 

CHAPTER V. 

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS (Continued). 
Amusements — Hindu Jugglers — Birth, Marriage, Death, and 

(vii) 



VIU CONTENTS. 

Funeral Ceremonies — Joint Family System — Division of 
Family Property— Adoption - - - - 59 

CHAPTER VI. 

RELIGION AND WORSHIP. 

Demon Worship — Tutelar Village Deities — The Hindu Triad: 
Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva — Tree Worship — Serpent Wor- 
ship - 73 

CHAPTER VII. 
RELIGION AND WORSHIP (Continued). 

Temple s — Mode of Worship — Festivals — Pilgrimages — 
Omens and Superstitions — Buddhism — Fear the Pre- 
dominant Feeling in Worship - - - - 83 

CHAPTER VIII. 

HINDU WOMAN. 

Her Ideal and Real Status — The Hindu Widow — Fem ile 
Education and Zenana Work — Female Medical Pro- 
fession ---------95 

CHAPTER IX. 

SOME TRAITS OF HINDU CHARACTER. 

Virtues of the Hindus— Their Vices: (i) Untruthfulness and 
Deceit, (2) Debt, (3) Insincerity and Love of Money, (4) 
Credulity and Superstition, (5) Love of Display and 
Fame no 

CHAPTER X. 

EDUCATION. 

Education and Preaching Mutually Supplementary, not An- 
tagonistic — Notwithstanding Rapid Progress of Educa- 
tion. Ignorance Still a National Evil — Great Need of 
Technical Schools — Importance of Education as an 
Evangelistic Agency — Its Fruits —Attitude of Educated 
Young Men towards Christianity — Desire of the Natives 
Themselves for a Complete Education, Religious and 



CONTENTS. IX 



Secular — Need for Some Special Evangelistic Agency 
in Every Missionary Institution — A Large Use of the 
Press Desirable --120 

CHAPTER XL 

EVANGELISTIC WORK. 

Paramount Importance of Preaching— The Best Times and 
Methods to Be Adopted in Preaching — Some Arguments 
and Discussions — Concentration of Effort Desirable — 
Christian Literature Should Be Widely Circulated — Re- 
sults of Bazaar Preaching 132 

. CHAPTER XII. 

HAVE MISSIONS BEEN A FAILURE? 

Success Twofold: (i) Individual Conversions — Converts, 
Their Steady Numerical Increase — Numerous Secret 
Disciples — Quality of the Converts; (2) Social Refor- 
mation — Loosening of the Bonds of Caste — Female Edu- 
cation — Widow Re-marriage — Decay of Faith in Hin- 
duism — Growth of Religious Fraternities — Similarity 
between India and the Roman Empire — Christianity 
Has no Rival to Fear — Outlook for the Future - 143 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



PAGE. 

A Brahmin - - _ . _ - . Frontispiece 
A High-caste Hindu Woman - - - - - -15 

An Oil Mill --------- 25 

A Bazaar Man --"37 

Blacksmiths --------- 47 

Sawyers ---------- 61 

Weavers -----_.-_- ^^ 

A Potter - - - 85 

Snake-charmers ---------97 

A Funeral - .------^n^ 

A Woman Decorating Her Doorstep - - t - 123 
A Female Water-carrier -_-_.. j^s 



(x) 



t^iv^e Life \i) Tr)dia. 



SKETCHES OF TEE SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS CHAR- 
ACTERISTICS OF THE fflNDUS. 



CHAPTER I. 

SOME GEOGRAPHICAL, CLIMATIC, AND LINGUIS- 
TIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MADRAS 
PRESIDENCY. 

HE Madras presidency occu- 
pies, with its dependencies 
and the States of Mysore, the 
entire southern part of the 
peninsula of India, or Hindu- 
stan. On the east it extends 
from Orissa, in Bengal, to 
Cape Comorin. On the west 
the narrow strip of country 
which includes the native 
;tates of Travancore and Cochin, forms 
:he coast line from Cape Comorin to 
:he town of Cochin, where Madras ter- 
ritory again extends along the coast un- 
til its junction with the Bombay presidency, at the 

(u) 




12 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

northern extremity of the South Canara district. 
In the center are the Nagpore country and Berar, 
the territories of the Nizam, known as the Deccan, 
and the province of Mysore; but all the center of 
the peninsula south and east of Mysore belongs 
to the Madras presidency. 

Its extreme length is about nine hundred and fifty 
miles, and its extreme breadth about four hundred 
and fifty. It consists of three classes of territory : (i) 
The twenty-two British districts; (2) the agency tracts 
of Ganjam, Vizagapatam, and Godavari, under a 
special administration; and (3) the five native States 
in political dependence on the Madras Government, 
viz., Travancore, Cochin, Pudukota, Banganapalli, 
and Sandur. Including the agency tracts and the 
native States, the territory under the Madras Govern- 
ment (1881) contains an area of one hundred and 
forty-nine thousand and ninety-two square miles, 
with a population of thirty-four million one hun- 
dred and seventy-two thousand and sixty-seven 
persons, dwelling in fifty-seven thousand and twenty- 
two towns and villages. 

The peculiar physical feature of the presidency is 
a long mountain range running from north to south 
along the western coast, called the Western Ghauts, 
These hills arrest the rain clouds blown up from 
the Indian Ocean by the periodical winds of the 
southwest monsoon, and cause excessive rainfall 
on the narrow strip of coast on the west side. The 
heaviest rainfall on the eastern coast, especially in the 



VARIOUS CHARACTERISTICS. 1 3 

southeast, takes place during the northeast mon- 
soon. During this monsoon, when the eastern 
coast is deluged with rain, the western coast enjoys 
fine, clear weather, all caused by the western range 
of mountains, which has a similar effect in arresting 
the rain clouds from passing over. Along the east- 
ern coast, again, run the Eastern Ghauts, until they 
lose themselves in the Neilgherries, and there unite 
with the western range. The highest point of the 
Neilgherries is Doddabetta, more than eight thou- 
sand feet high. Here the traveler from the heated 
plains can enjoy cool and invigorating breezes amid 
romantic scenery of hills, lakes, and waterfalls. 
This region is inhabited by a shepherd race, called 
Todahs, having strange customs and speaking a pe- 
culiar dialect. There are other outlying spurs and 
hills, chief of which are the Shevaroys in Salem, 
the Anamallis in Coimbatoor, and the Pulneys in 
Madura. 

The varied physical features of Southern India 
cause considerable differences of climate in various 
parts of the presidency. The Neilgherry Hills en- 
joy the climate of the temperate zone, with a tem- 
perature rarely exceeding 80° Fahr. On the Malabar 
coast, during the prevalence of the southwest mon- 
soon, the sun is sometimes obscured for months to- 
gether, and rainfall is very great, amounting in some 
places to one hundred and fifty inches in the year. 
On the eastern coast and on the central table-lands, 
however, the rainfall is comparatively slight and the 



14 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

heat in the dry season excessive. The average rain- 
fall in the city of Madras is about forty-nine inches 
a year, but this is considerably above the average of 
the east coast generally. The coolest months in Ma- 
dras are November, December, January, and a por- 
tion of February. The hottest months are April, 
May, and June. September is close and steamy, 
and often one of the most trying months in the 
year. But, although the hot weather is the least 
agreeable, it is frequently the healthiest time of the 
year. The east coast is subject to destructive cy- 
clones, which frequently destroy the shipping and 
overflow the low-lying ports. 

The city of Madras is ordinarily healthy either 
for natives or Europeans. The temperature is high 
all the year round, but there are fewer sudden 
changes of heat and cold than in most places in 
India. The death rate is thirty-three per thousand. 
It usually increases during the cold and rainy reason, 
and is at its least during the dry, hot months of 
April, May, and June. 

Properly speaking, there are only two seasons in 
the year — the dry and the rainy, produced by tiie 
periodical winds called monsoons. There is no 
spring, summer, autumn, or winter, as the trees are 
never stripped of their leaves, and flowers are always 
in blossom. There is no reason, however, why a 
person possessing a good constitution, and living an 
active, temperate life, with moderation in eating 
and drinking, and avoidance of chills, over-fatigue, 




A HIGH CASTE HINDU WOMAN. 

(From a native dr.tiuing.) 



VARIOUS CHARACTERISTICS. 1/ 

etc., should not live as long there as in any other 
part of the world. 

The chief food grains are rice, cholam (a kind of 
maize), cumboo (a kind of millet), and ragi and 
giiigelly (oil seeds); the principal garden crops are 
chillies, tobacco, sugar cane, plantains, and betel- 
leaf. The trees mostly grown are cocoanut, areca- 
nut, jack, tamarind, and mango. 

The diseases mostly prevalent are cholera, fever, 
small-pox, diarrhea, dysentery, bowel complaints, 
and various forms of inflammation. Amongst the 
natives scrofula, elephantiasis, leprosy, and ophthal- 
mia are very common. 

As regards language, the Madras presidency is 
inhabited almost exclusively by a single family of 
the human race, called Dravidian, who speak the 
Tamil and its kindred languages — the Telu, Tulugu, 
Canarese, and Malayalam. Even the Brahmins, 
the most important of the classes who have inter- 
mixed with the population, but who represent a 
different element, have adopted the Dravidian lan- 
guage. The word Dravida is probably a Sanscrit 
one, and is now employed to indicate the languages 
peculiar to the south and southeast of the peninsula. 
Early Sanscrit writers called the languages of South 
India the Andhradravidabasha, the language of the 
Andhras and Dravidas, or of the Telugus and Ta- 
mulians. Canarese was included in Andhra, and 
Malayalam in Dravida. The inhabitants of the ex- 
treme south, and those shut in by the mountains of 
2 



1 8 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

the western coast, exhibit peculiarities which are 
probably older than those of any other civilized 
community in the world. 

With reference to the age of the Dravidian lan- 
guages nothing- definite is known. Tamil literature 
does not carry the language back beyond the ninth 
or tenth century a. d., but Greek writings trace it 
to the beginning of the Christian era. Several 
primitive Dravidian words are found in the early 
Greek and Latin geographers. It is probable that 
the Dravidian languages are older in point of time 
than the Sanscrit, and that they have been driven 
to the south and along the east coast by the en- 
croachment of other lanp-uao-es from the northwest. 
After the immigration of the Aryans, the Dravidi- 
ans borrowed words from the Sanscrit to express 
abstract ideas of philosophy, science, and religion; 
but the original language was not radically altered. 
The new words were regarded rather as luxuries 
than as necessaries. In the speech of the Brahmins 
and more learned Tamulians, Sanscrit words are 
largely used, but a Tamil poetical composition is 
regarded as classical in proportion as it omits San- 
scrit words 

Without entering minutely into the peculiarities 
of the language, some of its more prominent features 
may be briefly noticed. The Tamil language has two 
dialects, the hi^-h and the low. The former is the 
language of the poets and of all elegant prose writ- 
ings. The two differ greatly, and a person may be 



VARIOUS CHARACTERISTICS. 1 9 

acquainted with the one without knowing the other. 
The language numbers thirty letters, viz., twelve 
vowels and eighteen consonants. The vowel is 
called ooyir, life or soul; and the consonant incy, 
body. There are no aspirates. The most difficult 
consonants are zh, r, and /. Very few Europeans 
can pronounce these letters accurately. The class- 
ical, or high, dialect is called shen Tamil, or ele- 
gant Tamil, while the latter is called kodun Tamil, 
or rough or common Tamil, and is the language 
spoken by the people. 

The consonant cJi represents all sibilants. The 
words are written from left to right, as in English, 
and in native books they are printed without any 
separation, which is often very perplexing. 

The word ''Tamil" means "melodiousness," de- 
noting the high estimation in which the language is 
held. No language combines greater force and 
brevity, or is more close and philosophic in its 
modes of expression, while the various degrees of 
rank and station are provided for by the use of dif- 
ferent pronouns. Altogether there are, it is esti- 
mated, about twenty-nine million speaking the Dra- 
vidian languages. Tamil is spoken by about twelve 
million three hundred and eighty-eight thousand 
persons; Telugu, by twelve million one hundred 
and five thousand; Malayalam, by two million 
three hundred and seventy thousand; Canarese, 
by one million three hundred thousand five hun- 
dred and fifty-five; Tulu, by four hundred and 



20 



NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 



twenty-seven thousand; Khond, by two hundred 
and five thousand; Gond, by eight thousand. The 
Tamil language, probably, shows the greatest tend- 
ency to spread. Some words of Tamil origin have 
been incorporated into the English language, such 
as "cheroots," fi'om the Tamil sJiiriittu^ a roll; *'cot" 
from the Tamil kattile, and others. 




CHAPTER II. 



CASTES AND SECTS. 




The Priesthood— The Warrior Caste— The Trading Caste— 
The Agricultural Caste— The Shepherd Caste— The Ar- 
tisan Caste. 



HE division of Hindu society into castes is 
the most striking peculiarity of its social 
life, and has no parallel in any other coun- 
try in the world. It defines what a man must do, 
and what he must not do ; it determines by a code 
of its own what actions are good and what are bad; 
it shows far greater respect for its own harsh rules 
than for the laws of morality ; it insists on a blind 
adherence to the past, and is thus the most conserv- 
ative national power in the whole world, as well as 
a vast instrument for good or for evil. The entire 
system is despotic and tyrannical, and punishes all 
who disregard its rules, by cutting them off from 
society. It is a very different thing from the so- 
cial distinctions which prevail in English society. 
The pride of birth, the pride of wealth, aristo- 
cratic pride, ecclesiastical pride, do exist in En- 
gland, but there caste is an ugly growth by no 
means essential to the national life, while in India 

(21) 



22 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

it is a part and parcel of it. Without it Hindu so- 
ciety would break up, and is in fact breaking up 
wherever its power is diminishing. It forbids a 
Hindu to eat and drink with a foreigner, or to have 
any intimate relations with him. 

Theoretically, the Hindus are divided into four 
great castes, viz.. Brahmins, or priests; Rajpoots, 
called also Kshatriyas, the military class; Vais- 
yas, or merchants, bankers, and traders; and Su- 
dras, or agriculturists, artisans, shepherds, etc. But 
practically every separate trade, profession, or oc- 
cupation constitutes a distinct caste. Every caste, 
moreover, has its subdivisions, which are gener- 
ally as socially disconnected as if they were sepa- 
rate castes. The people mix together in the streets, 
in trade, and are to a certain extent on friendly 
terms with one another, but socially they are 
as distinct as though they belonged to different 
worlds. They cannot intermarry, or eat and drink 
together. The different sections of Hindu society 
are so many, and the traditions and sentiments of 
each so distinct, that one caste is comparatively lit- 
tle influenced by any movement taking place in an- 
other. A clear understanding of the various caste 
divisions among the people is a matter of some dif- 
ficulty. We have several times asked educated 
men of good social position to explain the various 
divisions and subdivisions prevailing among the 
people, but have found that they themselves do not 
understand the subject. The following classifica- 



CASTES AND SECTS. 2 3 

tion of the different castes as they exist in Soutn 
India may be regarded as substantially correct: — 

(i) Brahmins, the priesthood; (2) Kshatriyas, 
the warrior caste; (3) Chetties, the trading caste; 
(4) Vellalars, the agricultural caste; (5) Idaiyar, the 
shepherd caste; (6) Kammalan, the artisan caste ; (7) 
Kanakkan, the writer or accountant caste; (8) Kai- 
kalar, the weaver caste; (9) Vunniar or Pullie, the 
agricultural laboring caste ; (10) Kusaven, the pot- 
ter caste; (11) Satani, the mixed caste; (12) Sem- 
badaven, the fishing and hunting caste; (13) Shan- 
ars, the palm-cultivating caste; (14) Ambattan, the 
barber caste; (15) Vannan, the washerman caste; 
(16) the Pariahs or out-castes. 

The Brahmins belong to the Aryan race, and 
came into South India about the beginning of the 
Christian era. They are fair-featured, handsome, 
and well-built, courtly and polished in their man- 
ners, but very haughty and crafty. The Brahmins 
of South India are largely worshipers of Shiva, but 
there are also followers of Vishnu and Linga 
among them. They are divided into three classes 
according to their religious philosophy. The Smar- 
tas are followers of Sarkaracharya and worshipers 
of Shiva. They are Adwaicas in philosophy, that 
is, they believe that the soul of man and the soul of 
God are identical. The Madhwas are followers of 
Madhwacharya, and worshipers of Vishnu. In 
philosophy they are Dwaitas, that is, they believe 
that the soul of man and the soul of God are dis- 



24 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

tinct. The Sri Veishnavas follow the teachings of 
Ramanujacharyar and worship Vishnu. They are 
called Visishta-Adwaitas, or ''Adwaitas with a dif- 
ference," because they hold that while the divine 
and human souls are in some respects identical, yet 
that in life the human soul is subordinate to the 
divine soul. The chief duties of a Brahmin are to 
read and teach the Vedas, to perform sacrifices for 
himself and for others. He is forbidden to live by 
service, but on alms. It is the duty of people to 
support him liberally, and at all religious ceremo- 
nies they are feasted and sent away with presents. 
But the Brahmins of the present day have largely 
departed from the rule of life laid down for them. 
Large numbers of them are employed in the gov- 
ernment service; some are lawyers, others are 
Purohitas, or family priests, while a considerable pro- 
portion are landholders. This land, which has gen- 
erally been given to their ancestors by some native 
prince, is frequently the best in the country, and is 
cultivated by serf labor with little or no effort on 
their part. They are divided into Gotrams, or clans, 
according to the country from which they originall}^ 
migrated. They are cleanly in their person, and, as 
a rule, strict vegetarians and teetotalers ; but in 
large towns and among the educated young men 
strong drinks are becoming common, while some 
also eat flesh. The Brahmins cremate their dead, 
and their widows are not allowed to remarry. 
They never worship the village deities, as the abo- 



CASTES AND SECTS. 2J 

riginal races do. In Malabar the Brahmins are 
called Namburis, and are a fine, handsome race of 
men. 

The Kshatriya, or warrior caste, is also called 
Rajput, which signifies " sons of kings," and implies 
their descent fi'om ancient rajahs. They have all 
come.fi'om the north, and, except in Tinnevelly, 
where there is a large colony of them, are not found 
to any large extent in South India. Some few are 
employed in the military service of the government, 
while others are zeminders , owning estates and liv- 
ing on the income derived therefrom. In their cus- 
toms they approximate largely to the Brahmins, 
and wear the sacred thread as they do. 

The Chetties, or trading castes, are an important 
section of the community. They care little for 
government service, and confine themselves almost 
exclusively to trade and mercantile pursuits. They 
have a keen eye to business, and their sole ambi- 
tion is to get money and become rich. There are 
several subdivisions among them, two of which are 
the bankers and money lenders of the people. 
They are, generally speaking, fair-complexioned, 
and their money transactions are on a large scale. 
Their drafts are seldom dishonored, and they lend 
out money at high rates of interest. 

One of these subdivisions is the oil pressers. 
The seed is placed in a hollow wooden mortar into 
which the grinder and presser fit. This grinder is 
turned by a long beam, to which is yoked one or 



28 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

two oxen. The oil is thus pressed, and the opera- 
tion, which may be seen in almost any village, 
makes a disagreeable grating sound, and is heard at 
a long distance. 

The bazaar, or shop-man, sits crosslegged in the 
midst of his wares in his shop, which is quite open 
to the street, and situated in the most frequented 
thoroughfares. 

The Vellalars, or Agricultural caste, forms the 
backbone of the country, and is by far the most 
numerous in the presidency. Under this name are 
included several subdivisions. The Vellalars may 
be taken as representative of the cultivating caste 
in the Tamil-speaking districts of South India. 
They take the title Mudali (chief man), and in 
some districts Pillai (sons of the gods), which is 
used also by the shepherd and accountant castes. 

The agricultural laborer may be seen in early 
morning in every village of India, going forth to his 
labor, carrying on his shoulder his yoke and plow, 
which he steadies with one hand, while with the 
other he holds the rope reins fastened to his tiny 
bullocks. The plow consists of two rude sticks 
with an iron spike at the end, which constitutes the 
share. This he guides with one hand, while with 
the other he guides the cattle, and thus makes a rut 
or scratch in the field. The seed is sown in various 
ways. Sometimes while the field is being plowed 
for the last time a man walks behind and drops the 
seed into the furrow. At other times a long tube 



CASTES AND SECTS. 29 

is attached to the plow; while the plow is moving 
forward the man who holds it drops the seed into 
the tube at the upper end, and it falls into the fur- 
row at tlie other end. A third method is to carry 
the seed in a basket and scatter by the hand over 
the surface of the field. 

There are two kinds of cultivation of the soil, 
wet and dry; the former is used for rice and in- 
digo, the land being watered by tanks or lakes, 
with high embankments, or from deep wells. The 
latter mode of cultivation is adopted for sugar- 
cane, wheat, barley, fruits, and vegetables. When 
the grain appears in the ear, it is watched night and 
day, to protect it from thieves and birds. If the 
grain has grown so high that the whole field cannot 
be taken in at a glance, small platforms are erected, 
consisting of four poles stuck in the ground, with a 
framework of bamboos placed on them. On these 
platforms boys or women are stationed, who contin- 
ually call out, to frighten away the birds. When 
the grain is ripe, it is reaped and spread out in the 
open air in a clean part of the field. Some grains 
are threshed by driving round and round upon 
them four or five bullocks abreast. Contrary to 
the Scripture injunction, the bullocks are muzzled. 
When the stalks have been sufficiently trodden, 
they take baskets full of the grain, and, standing in 
a certain position, when there is a slight breeze 
blowing, drop it down slowly. The wind separates 
the husk from the grain, the latter falling at the 



30 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

feet of the man, the former being blown away. 
This is their method of winnowing, or cleaning, the 
grain. When all is finished, part of it is kept for 
their own use, and a part of it is sold to pay the 
government tax. After a field has been reaped, 
the poor are allowed to come and j^ick up what re- 
mains. 

The farmers generally occupy small farms, which 
they hold direct from the State. Their standing is 
known by the number of pairs of bullocks they 
keep and the number of plows they use. If he 
is a poor man, he can only keep one pair of bull- 
ocks and cultivate a small piece of land. If he is 
a wealthy man, he cultivates a larger piece, and in 
addition to having four or five pairs of bullocks he 
keeps two or three cows and buffaloes, which sup- 
ply him with an abundance of milk ; his women 
are adorned with gold and silver ornaments, and 
he has a large number of brass cooking utensils in 
his house. The agricultural classes are intensely 
conservative in all their ways. They never act on 
their own responsibility, but will only do what ''ten 
men" do. Blind devotion to ancient custom consti- 
tutes their religion, and they deem it as perilous to 
forsake that as for a locomotive to quit the rails. 
They are firm fatalists, and believe that every man's 
destiny is written on his forehead. They are char- 
acterized by much simplicity, mingled with great 
shrewdness of practical wisdom. Although the 
Vellalars are somewhat behindhand in availing 



CASTES AND SECTS. 31 

themselves of the benefits of English education, yet 
they are now proving themselves possessed of con- 
siderable mental power. Not a few of the gradu- 
ates of the Madras University have come from this 
class. 

Idaiyar, the shepherd and pastoral caste, formed 
an important division of the people in ancient times, 
before the land was brought under cultivation. It 
is not improbable that it was supreme all over India 
in former days, but it now holds a subordinate place 
to the cultivating class. The word '' idaiyw'' means 
"middle," that is, neither high nor low class. They 
keep sheep, goats, milch kine and buffaloes; the 
breeding of cattle and the sale of milk and curds is 
in their hands, but they have done nothing to im- 
prove the breeds or the food supply of the people. 
They sell the wool which comes off their sheep, 
and the he-goats are for sacrifice. Their flocks are 
generally kept in inclosures in the open field, with 
dogs to protect them from wolves. 

Of the Kammalan, or artisan caste, there are 
five orders — goldsmith, blacksmith, coppersmith, 
carpenter, and mason. Hence they are sometimes 
called PancJiala {pancha, five). The artisan castes 
have always fought for a higher place in the social 
scale than that assigned to them by the Brahmins. 
They wear the sacred thread like the Brahmins, 
and some of them take the title achari, or relig- 
ious teacher. Their giinis (priests) are not Brah- 
mins, but members of their own caste. Their fa- 



32 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

vorite deity is Kamatchiammal, identified with Par- 
vati, the wife of Shiva. 

The goldsmith carries his shop about with him. 
His furnace is an earthen pot, his bellows an iron 
pipe, and his crucible is made on the spot, and 
thrown away when no longer needed.. The females 
of India being exceedingly fond of jewels, he finds 
plenty of employment. The jewelers of Trichi- 
nopoly make articles of beautiful workmanship and 
delicate texture, but they lack finish and novelty of 
design. There is little or no encouragement for 
artistic display, as an article is prized more on ac- 
count of its intrinsic value than on account of its 
excellency of workmanship. 

The blacksmith likewise carries his smithy and 
tools with him. He soon makes a furnace, and, sit- 
ting on the ground, with his attendant apprentice, 
the bellows blower, with a goatskin in each hand 
at his side, works in that position. His anvil is a 
stone, and his apparatus a pair of pincers, hammer, 
mallet, and file. 

The carpenter sits on the ground, and holds the 
wood between his feet. His tools are the hammer, 
chisel, and saw. The latter has its teeth set towards 
the handle, and in an opposite direction to that of 
an English or American saw. With these simple 
implements he will make almost any article of furni- 
ture exceedingly well, lacking only in finish. 

The masons work beautifully in stone, as some of 
their carvings in their temples bear abundant evi- 
dence. 



CASTES AND SECTS. 33 

The grand characteristic of all the arts in India is 
the obvious want of power. The hands do their 
work well, but there is a want of head. There is 
little knowledge and no emulation. Each man fol- 
lows the occupation which his father followed, and 
does his work in the same way; and thus, though 
one generation follows another, it is the revolution 
of one dull wheel, and the appearance is still the 
same. There have been imitations of European 
articles made for Europeans; but it is doubtful 
whether during the last four or five hundred years 
the native intellect of India has contrived a single 
tool or machine for the effecting of any native 
purpose. 




CHAPTER III. 

CASTES AND SECTS— Continued. 

The Writer Caste — The Weaver Caste — The AgricuUural 
Laboring Caste — The Potter Caste — Satani, or Mixed 
Caste — The Fishing and Hunting Caste — The Pa'm- 
Cultivating Caste — The Barber Caste — The Washerman 
Caste — The Pariahs — Mohammedans. 

HE writer, or accountant caste, Kanak- 
kan, is popularly called ** Karnam." In 
the early days of the British occupation of 
the country they were the agents and interpreters 
of the East India Company, and the word ''coni- 
copillay,'' used in reference to agents of mercan- 
tile firms, is a corruption of '' Kannakkan pillay^' a 
writer or accountant. In every village there are 
three petty officials, — the Munsiff, who is the head 
magistrate; the Munigar, whose duty it is to collect 
and remit the government taxes; and the Kannak- 
kan, who keeps the village accounts. These posts 
are generally hereditary. 

Of the Kaikalar, or weaver caste, there are two 
kinds — cotton weavers and silk weavers. The silk 
weavers are called Patnulkars. They are, gener- 
ally speaking, of a fair complexion, and having 
originally migrated from Guzerat, speak a Guzerati 

(34) 



CASTES AND SECTS. 35 

dialect among themselves. Their weaving is done 
in a cellar or low basement. The cotton weavers, 
on the other hand, work in the open air. Men, 
women, and children all work. The loom consists 
of four forked sticks stuck in the ground, and two 
pieces across these sticks, to which the ends of the 
web are attached. With this simple contrivance the 
weaver manufactures cloth of fine and delicate tex- 
ture. The weaving industry, however, is in a pre- 
carious state, owing to the importation of English- 
made goods, and, were it not that the Lancashire 
manufacturers have not as yet succeeded in turning 
out machine-made cloths equal in price and dura- 
bility to those of the hand looms of India, might be 
in a still worse condition. Many of this caste con- 
sequently now follow other pursuits. The weavers 
have the reputation of being given to drink. 

The Vunniar, or Pullie, the agricultural laboring 
caste, is composed of those who were originally 
slaves to the Vellalars and Brahmin cultivators; but 
many of them now own small pieces of land of 
their own, while others cultivate the lands of the 
higher classes, and share half the net produce. In 
this caste may be included the Maravars of Madura 
and Tinnevelly, and the Kalians, also the Oddars, a 
laboring tribe of Telugu origin. The latter live in 
villages by themselves, in little conical-shaped huts 
like beehives. They are a hardy race, and are em- 
ployed as the tank diggers and road makers of the 
country. . The Maravars and Kalians were origi- 



36' NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

nally a lawless and turbulent people, given up to 
thieving and fighting, but now pursue peaceable 
occupations. The Vunnias sometimes attach the 
title of "Naick" or *' Naicker" to their names. 

The potter caste is employed in making the com- 
mon red chatties (pots) and other clay vessels so 
much used in cooking, etc. The potter stands and 
turns the wheel with a bamboo, shaping the vessel 
as it turns. In this manner he makes vessels of 
all shapes and sizes. The articles now made are 
neither so chaste in design nor so well executed as 
those in former times, as is evident from the pottery 
found in the tombs of the Turanian race, who for- 
merly populated India. 

The mixed caste consist of various classes who 
have more or less given up caste restrictions. 
The Satanis derive their name from Sanatana, one 
of the disciples of Chaitanya, a religious reformer of 
the fifteenth century. They are mostly worship- 
ers of Vishnu. Some of them wear a rosary of 
tulsi beads round their necks. Their peculiarity is 
that they profess to have given up all caste distinc- 
tions, and receive anyone who agrees with them in 
religious views. These are all, generally speaking, 
religious mendicants and priests of inferior temples. 
One order of this caste is that of the Basis, or 
dancing girls, whose ranks are recruited by the fe- 
male children of the caste, who are always brought 
up to the same profession, and by female children 
of other castes, who are presented to the temple by 




A BAZAAR MAN. 



(From a native drawing.) 



See page 28. 



CASTES AND SECTS. 39 

their parents in fulfillment of some vow. Large 
numbers are attached to the principal temples, and 
are maintained by the Brahmin priests. 

The fishing and hunting caste are industrious 
but very illiterate. The northern fishing caste, 
called Bois, a Telugu people, are the best bearers 
of burdens in the country. 

Shanars are the palmyra cultivators, toddy draw- 
ers, and distillers of the country. They climb the 
trees in an ingenious manner, tap them, and ex- 
tract the juice, which they boil into coarse sugar, 
or distill into intoxicating drink called toddy or ar- 
rack, a species of rum. They correspond with the 
Tiyars in Malabar and Travancore, and are spe- 
cially numerous in Tinnevelly, where large numbers 
have embraced Christianity and risen greatly in the 
social scale. They are a hard-working and indus- 
trious race. They are clearly of a non-Aryan 
origin, though they have endeavored to prove that 
they have descended from one of the higher caste. 
Many of them, especially among the Christians, 
are well educated and have taken degrees at the 
Madras University. 

The Ambattan, the barber caste, occupy an im- 
portant place in the Hindu social system. They 
may be seen sitting by the roadside shaving the 
head and face of the customer who sits opposite 
to them. They are also employed as go-betweens 
in the arrangement of marriages, feasts, and funer- 
als, and act as masters of ceremonies on these oc- 



40 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

casions. They are the general news agents. They 
dabble in medicine, also, and act as musicians on pub- 
lic occasions, beating the tom-tom, a kind of drum. 
Some barbers attend the male members of certain 
families, and shave them regularly at stated times 
They receive in return small sums of money, a 
piece of cloth at festival times or on occasions of a 
marriage taking place in the family, and are also 
paid in grain in time of harvest. Barbers also go 
about the streets seeking for customers. They do 
not cry out, but are easily recognized by a small 
bag wrapped in a cloth which they carry with them, 
containing one or two razors, a pair of scissors or 
knife, a small looking-glass, and a small piece of 
leather on which to sharpen the razors. Their oc- 
cupation is generally hereditary, and they follow the 
religious beliefs of the majority of their customers. 
If the majority are worshipers of Vishnu, they fol- 
low that belief; if of Siva, then they follow that. 
No Hindu shaves himself, nor is shaving ever done 
in the house or shop, but under a tree or shed, very 
often in the open street. The whole head is shaved 
bald, with the exception of a little tuft of hair in the 
middle at the back of the head, which is usually 
tied in a knot. Some barbers devote themselves to 
cleaning ears, which they do with a kind of skewer 
covered at one end with cotton. 

Of the Vannan or washerman caste, each wash- 
erman has a certain number of houses for which he 
washes. He goes from house to house and collects 



CASTES AND SECTS. 4 1 

the clothes. When collected they are placed in an 
earthen tub and saturated in a mixture composed of 
mineral alkali and common soap. Then they are 
boiled in a large brass vessel over a slow fire. 
Afterwards they are taken to a pond or river close 
by and washed by being well beaten on a stone. 
This method soon destroys good clothes. If the 
articles are numerous, or the river some distance, 
donkeys or small bullocks are employed to carry 
them. When dry, the clothes of the better classes 
are ironed, while those of the poor are pounded 
with a mallet till they are soft and smooth. The 
washermen do not hesitate to wear the clothes given 
to them to wash, or else to hire them out to others 
on marriage occasions and during festivals. The 
washermen, or dhobis, as they are called, are much 
given to drink. 

In addition to the above there are other classes 
of the population, such as magicians and fortune 
tellers (Koravers), a nomadic tribe, who pitch their 
camps near villages in open places. They gather 
jungle produce, weave baskets, and generally pos- 
sess asses and cattle. They are great thieves, and 
are carefully watched by the police. The jugglers 
(Dommeras) are a similar nomadic tribe, who wander 
about the country in gangs performing athletic feats. 

The Brahmins, or priests, the warriors and trad- 
ers, are called the '* twice-born" castes, and wear the 
sacred thread across their shoulders. The others 
are called Sudras, and cannot wear the thread. 



42 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

Practically speaking, all from the Brahmins to the 
Artisan caste may be considered to be good castes. 

There is a peculiar division of the people in South 
India into right-hand and left-hand castes. The 
right-hand castes are called Vadangei, and the left- 
hand Idangei. The latter includes traders, artisans, 
oil mongers, weavers, male leather workers, and 
female Pullies. The former includes agriculturists, 
writers, and others, silk weavers, male Pullies, Pari- 
ahs, and female leather workers. It is, practically, a 
contest for social precedence between the artisan 
classes on the one hand, and the agricultural and 
mercantile cla^.ses on the other; but the peculiarity 
is that the females of the two lower classes take dif- 
ferent sides to their husbands. 

Outside of every Indian village is a small collec- 
tion of huts, called cJieri. This is occupied by 
Pariahs or out-castes. They are called Pariahs 
from the Tamil word ^' parei,'' a drum which they 
beat on festival occasions. These people cultivate 
the fields of the other inhabitants. They are a 
hard-working class, and eat almost anything. They 
are not cleanly in their habits. There are subdivis- 
ions among them, such as Chucklers, who are shoe- 
makers and workers in leather, and Totis, who are 
scavengers. The priests of the Pariahs are called 
Valluvars. The Taliyari is the head man, whose 
duty it is to guard the whole village from thieves, and 
the Vettiyan, who performs all kinds of menial duties. 
The domestic servants of European families are 



CASTES AND SECTS. 43 

mostly Pariahs. It is remarkable that one of the 
best and most popular poems in the Tamil language, 
the *'Kural," was written by a Pariah called Tiruval- 
luvar, clearly showing that they were not always 
as degraded as they now are. 

The Mohammedans of the Madras presidency 
number about one million nine hundred thousand, 
and are mostly a mixed race, resulting from the 
intermarriage of the Persian and Arab traders with 
the women of the country. They have no caste 
distinctions among them, and may be easily recog- 
nized from their mode of dress, shaven head, and 
cultivation of the beard. They may be divided into 
two principal classes, one being chiefly engaged in 
trade, or employed as boatmen and fishermen. Re- 
ligiously they are divided into Shias and Sunis. 
The latter consider themselves to be the orthodox 
followers of Mohammed. They assert the suprem- 
acy of Mohammed, and acknowledge the first four 
califs as his successors. The Shias, on the other 
hand, acknowledge only Ali as his successor, and 
reject the first three; they insist on the authority 
of the Koran, and reject certain traditions supported 
by the Sunis. 

The latter class are chiefly found on the western 
coast, and are, likewise, a mixed race, resulting 
from the intermarriage of the Arabs with the native 
women. Their ranks are largely recruited by con- 
versions from the slave castes of Malabar. They are 
an industrious but fanatical race. 



44 



NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 



And thus the population of the whole of India is 
made up of caste, and division of caste, till almost 
every man is separate from his brother. How dif- 
ferent from the gospel of Christ: "For one is your 
master, even Christ, and all ye are brethren". 




CHAPTER IV. 



MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 

Outward Appearance of the Hindus — Sectarian Marks — The 
Dress of Men and Women — Fondness for Jewelry — 
Mode of Wearing Hair — Their Method of Visiting Eu- 
ropeans — Forms of Salutation — Houses — Food. 



^f 




1 



N outward appearance the Hindus of South 
India are all shades of complexion. Some 

-are fair, or " red," as they term it; others 
are of a deep black. The prevailing shade may be 
said to be a sort of mahogany. As a rule the 
higher classes are fairer than the lower, but not ex- 
clusively so. One of the first things to strike a 
foreigner in mingling with the people is that they all 
have some kind of mark inscribed on their forehead. 
Some have three lines drawn across in the shape of 
a triangle or trident; others, three horizontal lines, 
or a small round spot in the center of the forehead 
about the size of a silver dime or half-dime piece. 
They are made with a paste of sandal-wood moist- 
ened with water. These are sectarian marks, and de- 
note what god the wearer worships. They are put 
on before partaking of the morning meal, and are 
generally kept on for the rest of the day. The wor- 
shipers of Vishnu are distinguished by the trident 

(45) 



46 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

mark, and employ for the purpose a kind of white 
earth called gopichandmia. The mark itself is 
called naniam, and consists of two perpendicular 
white lines drawn from the root of the hair to the 
commencement of each eyebrow, and a transverse 
streak uniting them across the nose, while in the 
center is a perpendicular streak of red made of tur- 
meric and lime. They have, also, patches of this 
gopichandana with a red streak in the center on the 
breast and upper part of each arm. The marks are 
said to represent the shell, discus, club, and lotus 
which Vishnu bears in his four hands. Sometimes 
these objects are stamped on the body with wooden 
stamps. Large namavis may be seen inscribed on 
the walls of temples, and smaller ones on the doors 
of houses. The followers of Madhwacharriar have 
the same frontal mark, but instead of a red line 
down the center, have a black one made with char- 
coal. Veishnava women have a perpendicular red 
mark with a horizontal white mark between the 
eyes. 

The worshipers of Shiva have three horizontal 
lines on the forehead. In the early morning these 
are made of vibhuti, or sacred ashes, which are pre- 
pared with special ceremonies and the utterance of 
mantrams , or prayers. After bathing, the sacred 
ashes are replaced by sandal- paste, or sJiandanam. 
Very often a circular white spot, as mentioned be- 
fore, takes the place of the three lines. This circu- 
lar spot is called pottu. Shiva women have a crim- 



<'.Cn 




MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 49 

son pottu made of turmeric and lime-juice. Andis 
or Sheiva ascetics smear the whole body with these 
sacred ashes. It is an essential part of the religious 
duty of every Hindu to inscribe these sectarian 
marks on his person each day (a bag or small box 
of the material being kept in every house for the 
purpose), just as it is incumbent on every convert 
from Hinduism, as one of his first duties on em- 
bracing the Christian faith, to remove these symbols 
of heathenism. 

The clothing of the Hindus is singularly graceful, 
becoming, and suited to the country. The men 
wear two snow-white cloths, each from two to ten 
yards in length, the one *'an upper cloth" and the 
other a "lower cloth." The former is thrown over 
the shoulders, somewhat like a Roman toga, and 
covers the body with the exception of the head and 
arms; the latter, which consists of a single piece, is 
wound round the waist, and falls below the knees 
more or less to the ground. There are no pins, 
buttons, or strings, but it is fastened by simply fold- 
ing one part within the other. Sometimes, if suffi- 
ciently long, one end of this cloth is passed between 
the legs from behind, and arranged in folds in front. 
Many, however, among the educated classes now 
wear made-up tunics, while others wear loose and 
tight trousers, like the Mohammedans, the latter 
fastening them on the left side, and the former on 
the right. The turban or headdress consists of a 
long, narrow piece of cloth wound round the head, 

4 



50 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

its shape and color being adapted to the taste of the 
wearer. Many may be seen in the streets without 
any head-covering at all, but no one is admitted into 
European or other respectable society without a 
headdress. Stockings are seldom or never seen. 
The wearing of shoes is optional; many go without 
them, but sandals or native slippers peaked and 
turned up at the toes, and turned down at the heels, 
are usually worn outside but never inside the house. 
Natives of all castes take off their shoes and re- 
tain their turbans when visiting others, or when re- 
ceiving visitors themselves. Among the educated 
classes it is becoming customary to wear boots, and 
sometimes even patent-leather ones. Finger rings, 
ear rings, and toe rings are also worn by the men. 

All Brahmins, as well as the other "twice-born" 
castes, wear a thread, called the sacred thread 
{pumd), which hangs from the left shoulder across 
to the right side. Thfs they put on between the 
ages of eight and fifteen. It consists of three thick 
twists of cotton, each formed of several smaller 
threads. The three threads are separate from one 
another, and on the marriage of a Brahmin the 
three threads are increased to nine. It is renewed 
every year. Religious Brahmins wear round the 
neck a rosary of hard nuts of certain trees, which 
is used in reciting the appointed prayers. Sivites 
wear a rosary of Rudraksham nuts; Vishnuvites, a 
rosary made of the nuts of the tulsi tree. 

The dress of the women consists of one piece of 



MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 5 I 

cloth from six to twenty yards in length, and one 
or two yards in width, one end of which, being 
gathered in folds, is held to the left side, while the 
other end is wound round the waist and brought 
up over the right shoulder and down to the left side, 
where it is tucked in so as to fall down the front in 
folds. This cloth is generally colored and embroid- 
ered, and sometimes of silk. Petticoats are now 
worn by some women. Widows are allowed to 
wear only a white cloth. In addition to the cloth, 
a short, tight-fitting jacket with short sleeves is worn. 
The women wear no headdress, but a single fold of 
cloth is drawn up over the head. 

All women are passionately fond of jewelry, 
which they wear on their arms, necks, and fingers, 
in their ears and noses, round their ankles, between 
their toes, and in their hair. The ornaments on 
the feet are invariably of silver. The most impor- 
tant ornament worn by married Hindu women is 
the take. It answers to the wedding-ring among 
the English, and consists of one or more small gold 
jewels on a twisted thread. This is fastened round 
the neck of the bride by the bridegroom at the time 
of marriage, and is never removed except in case of 
widowhood. Brahmin women wear the cloth wound 
round the waist in the usual manner, but with five 
folds in front and behind, like the men. Occasion- 
ally the end which hangs down behind is brought 
forward between the legs and fastened in front, leav- 
ing the legs behind uncovered. All women smear 



52 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

their faces and the uncovered portions of their bodies 
with a yellow solution of saffron and water, which 
is supposed to make them "fair." They also paint 
the border of the eyelashes with a solution of oil 
and lamp-black, and redden their finger nails with 
a dye of henna leaves. Hindu women usually have 
the feet uncovered. 

The dress of Mohammedan men usually consists 
of a pair of drawers, a long, flowing robe, gathered 
together into folds just below the chest, and the folds 
sewed together, a small cap on the head covered 
with a turban, a handkerchief, and shoes. Moham- 
medan women have a long, flowing robe, a bodice, a 
petticoat, shoes on the feet, and the usual full com- 
plement of jewels. 

The wearing of the hair long, tied up in a knot 
at the back of the head, still frequently seen, was 
the original Tamil custom. The mode now in gen- 
eral use, however, amxong all respectable classes is 
to shave off all the hair of the head, leaving only a 
small tuft at the back. The inhabitants of the west 
coast wear the tuft at the front of the head over the 
forehead. A caste of bankers in Tinnevelly and 
Madura shave the head completely, like the Mo- 
hammedans. When a Hindu loses his father or 
mother, he shaves off his tuft of hair, and also his 
mustache, as a sign of mourning. The Hindus 
wear only the mustache on the face, and some- 
times side whiskers, but seldom or never wear a full 
beard. " The wearing of a beard generally indicates 



MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 53 

some vow. The women have long, black, glossy 
hair, which they tie up in a knot at the back of the 
head; but some castes place it at the side. The 
young girls plait their hair in braids hanging down 
behind, much in the same fashion as American girls, 
but without the red and blue ribbons at the end. 
Sweet-smelling flowers are not infrequently taste- 
fully placed in the hair, which have a very pleasing 
effect. 

When a Hindu visits a European gentleman, the 
first thing he does is to take off his shoes, which he 
leaves outside in the veranda of the house, but 
keeps on his turban. He then approaches and 
makes a salaam^ by raising his right hand to his 
forehead and letting it drop again to his side. 
Hand-shaking is now becoming common among the 
educated and enlightened. After this he presents 
you with two or more limes or lemons as a peace- 
offering, which you must receive with your right 
hand. You then request him to be seated, which 
he does* either sitting crosslegged on the floor, or 
else sitting on a chair. You then inquire about his 
welfare, avoiding all reference to his wife, to which 
he usually replies by saying that by "your honor's 
favor, and the grace of the Almighty," he is well. 

The conversation now proceeds, during which he 
is studiously polite, striving not to offend you in 
any way, but to return such answers as he thinks 
will please you. When the interview has lasted 
sufficiently long, you tell him that he may go. No 



54 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

Hindu will go until he is told to leave. If you wish 
to see him again, you say, " Go, and come again." 
Otherwise you simply say, " Go." This would not 
be at all an inconvenient custom to introduce among 
the Americans, where some persons unnecessarily 
occupy a large portion of one's time ! Leaving the 
room, after having made a salaam, he puts on his 
shoes, and proceeds on his way. If he meets a re- 
spectable native gentleman of his own standing in 
society, or of a superior position, he salutes him by 
joining the two palms of his hands together, raising 
them to the level of his forehead, and letting them 
drop again. Brahmins generally salute the mem- 
bers of their own caste, and receive the salutations 
of others. If he sees a European official, or a gen- 
tleman of high social position, driving past, he 
either stands at the roadside, takes off his shoes, 
and salutes him Avith a low, reverential bow, or he 
makes an ordinary salaam in passing. He never 
salutes or takes any notice of a female. If he passes 
a temple by the roadside, it is not improbable that 
he will stop, take off his shoes, put the two palms 
of his hands together, mutter a few prayers, and 
then, putting on his shoes, pass on. Sometimes he 
may be seen prostrating himself before the idol. 
When a Hindu enters the presence of his spiritual 
teacher, he prostrates himself before him, and holds 
his feet. 

The houses of the Hindus are mostly one story 
in height, though some are two-storied. They are 



MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 55 

built of clay bricks dried in the sun, and white- 
washed with chunain, a kind of lime. They have 
an open veranda towards the street. The door is 
placed in the middle. Entering this door, you 
come into a small room with a raised pial^ or alcove, 
on each side. Here the owner receives his guests. 
Passing on, you come to an open court, paved, but 
not roofed. The rooms are built^round this court, 
and open into it. They are mostly small and dark, 
and fitted with wooden bars. One room is setiapart 
for the use of the females, and the others for the 
other members of the family, as well as for various 
domestic purposes, such as cooking food, eating, 
storing grain, etc. The household gods (lares and 
penates) are usually kept in the kitchen, and wor- 
ship is paid to them before eating. In respectable 
houses a special room is set apart for this purpose, 
where anyone who wishes may retire for worship, 
in addition to visiting the public temples. There 
are no tables or chairs, but a low bedstead, called a 
charpoi, without mattress, a box for keeping clothes 
and jewels, a rush mat, and a few earthen and metal 
pots, constitute all the furniture. 

Some of the educated and wealthier classes now 
have chairs, tables, couches, pictures, lamps, etc., 
but this is not the general custom. In large houses 
there is often a second smaller court and a small 
garden. A well is dug in the garden for conven- 
ience. The ceiling, rafters, and beams are of teak 
or palmyra wood, and the roof is covered with tiles. 



56 KATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

The dwellings of the poorest natives consist of four 
mud walls, with bamboo rafters covered with grass 
or palm-leaf thatch. Cows, buffaloes, and fowls are 
freely admitted inside an ordinary Hindu house, 
and may even be seen entering at the front door. 
A Hindu of the higher and middle classes, on rising 
in the morning, generally goes to a neighboring 
tank (lake), where he cleans his teeth, performs his 
sacred ablutions, inscribes sectarian marks on his 
forehead, arms, and breasts, visits the temple, and 
returns home to take a small repast before entering 
on the duties of the day. 

The Hindus usually have but two meals a day 
— one at twelve o'clock, and the other at night, 
when the day's work is over, and before retiring to 
rest. " Pepper water," a kind of soup without meat, 
and a little of the cold rice left over from the pre- 
vious night, or else a rice cake, called hoppah, and 
coffee or tea, are now frequently partaken of before 
the noon-day meal, on rising in the morning. The 
laboring classes, who go to their work early and 
remain out during the day, take their first meal in 
the early morning instead of at noon. The principal 
food of the country is curry and rice. Curry is a 
kind of powder made of pepper, salt, turmeric, gin- 
ger, tamarinds, onions, cocoanut juice, garlic, saf- 
fron, etc., mixed so as to suit the taste of the indi- 
vidual. The ingredients are ground on a smooth 
flat stone with a stone roller. This is added to the 
fish, fowl, piece of mutton, or vegetable, which is 



MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 5/ 

boiled in an earthen vessel. The rice is also boiled 
in water in an earthen vessel. The repast is now 
ready. 

There are no tables, chairs, knives, forks, or 
spoons. The individual sits crosslegged on the 
ground. A plantain leaf, sometimes several fig 
leaves sewn together, form the plate. The curry 
and rice is placed on this. It is customary for the 
female members of the house to cook the food. 
When it is ready, it is brought to the male members 
and set before them. The fingers are used in eat- 
ing. Some of the curry and rice is taken, rolled up 
into a sort of ball, and thrown into the mouth. 
The females never eat with the males. The male 
members eat first, and when they have finished and 
are satisfied, the females, who meanwhile have been 
attending on them, eat the remainder from the 
same leaf plate. Water, which is drunk out of a 
brass vessel, is the common drink; but some among 
the educated classes have, unfortunately, imbibed a 
taste for English wines and spirits, while others of 
the poorer classes drink tadi^ or toddy, the fer- 
mented juice of the palmyra tree, or arrack, a 
country spirit distilled from toddy or jaggery 
(raw sugar). 

Ragi is the grain chiefly eaten by the labor- 
ing classes. It is cheaper than rice, and more 
sustaining for those who have to undergo bodily 
exertion. Ghee (clarified butter), butter-milk, 
and curds are used by all classes. Green vegetables 



58 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

are used in curries, and ripe fruits are eaten raw 
when in season, such as plantains, mangoes, cus- 
tard-apple, jack-fruit, melons, cocoanut, etc. Sweet- 
meats are largely partaken of, principally made of 
sugar, butter, and flour. Some of these foods are 
healthful as well as palatable, but many of their 
dishes, to a Western taste, would be intolerable. It 
is strange how man abuses, by cooking, mixing, 
fermenting, and distilling, God's wondrous gifts. 



CHAPTER V. 



MANNERS AND CUSTOMS— Continued. 

Amusements — Hindu Jugglers — Birth, Marriage, Death, and 
Funeral Ceremonies — Joint 'P^amily System — Division 
of Family Property — Adoption. 




HE Hindus, like most people, are not over- 
fond of work, and delight in amusements 
and pastimes of all descriptions. The more 
noise and display the better they appreciate a thing. 
One of their amusements is telling and listening 
to wonderful stories about their gods and heroes. 
Other amusements are card playing and chess. 
Witnessing feats of jugglery and legerdemain is 
another favorite pastime. The Indian jugglers are, 
many of them, wonderfully clever, and their per- 
formances are all the more astounding from the 
fact that they are stark naked, with the exception 
of a small piece of cloth round their waists and 
a turban on their heads. There is no stage erec- 
tion, no curtains, tables, etc., only the bare ground 
before you and the open sky above. 

One of their tricks is called the *' mango-tree 
trick." A quantity of earth is taken and placed on 
the ground before you, in which the seed of a 

(59) 



6o NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

mango tree is imbedded. It is covered over with a 
cloth, and in a short time a movement takes place. 
The cloth is uncovered, and you see a small tree 
growing with leaves, etc. 

Another common performance is the '* basket 
trick." An open basket of medium size is taken 
and shown to you. It is placed on the ground be- 
fore you, and a girl or young woman doubled up 
and corded all over is placed in it. The basket is 
then covered with a lid and a cloth about the size 
of a sheet put over it. A man takes a sword and 
stabs the basket all round. A cry is heard, as if 
the girl had been injured, but the man jumps on the 
lid, and the basket is empty. There is no appear- 
ance of the girl, only the cord with which she was 
fastened is to be found. Snake charming is also a 
favorite amusement. 

In the evenings nautches^ or performances of 
dancing women, are held. They answer much the 
same purpose as theaters among Europeans. The 
nautch girls are not infrequently good-looking, but 
they are low, abandoned characters. Resplendent 
with jewels, they advance before the audience and 
dance gracefully, but with little variety, to the ac- 
companiment of native music. They throw the 
body into all kinds of positions, and their arms 
move in unison with their feet; but the full meaning 
of their motions and gestures is known only to the 
initiated. Sometimes cotton ropes are suspended, 
and the nautch girls, moving in and out among 



MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 63 

themselves, holding the rope in one hand and a 
stick in the other, with which they beat the stick 
of the opposite party, weave the ropes into all 
kinds of mathematical figures. The natives sit for 
hours watching a performance of this kind. If a 
native gentleman gives an entertainment to Euro- 
peans, it invariably winds up with a nautcJi. 

The birth of a child in a Hindu family is an event 
of great importance. If it is a son that is born, the 
occasion is one of great rejoicing. If it is a girl, 
there is little joy expressed, because sons only can 
perform the funeral ceremonies of the father, on 
which his happiness in the future world depends, 
and also on account of the great expense necessarily 
attending a daughter's marriage. When a child is 
• orn, a Brahmin priest is summoned, who casts 
«lS horoscope, announcing the planet under which 
it is born, and detailing the principal circumstances 
of its future history. This horoscope is carefully 
treasured, and is consulted on all important occa- 
sions. 

When the chila is a few days old, the cere- 
mony of naming it takes place. A priest is sum- 
moned, the parents sit on the ground, and the 
priest gives the father a plate of raw rice, on which 
he inscribes the name of the child and the planet 
under which it was born. This name is thrice pro- 
nounced; the ceremony then terminates with an 
offering to the household gods and a fee and din- 
ner to the priest and as many invited guests as 



64 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

the father's means will permit. It is important to 
invite as many as have any claim to be present, as 
the omission of anyone might entail his enmity in 
the future. When a father hesitates between sev- 
eral names, he writes them down, places a lighted 
lamp before each, and chooses the one before which 
the lamp burns the longest. Hindus name their 
children generally after some god or goddess, as 
Krishna, Rama, Narayana, Parvati, etc. Occasion- 
ally a name descriptive of personal excellence is 
given, as Gnana-pragasam (shining wisdom), Deva- 
dass (servant of God), Masillamaui (faultless pearl), 
etc. Before this name they place their village 
name, and after it their caste title. 

Colonel Sleeman, in his " Rambles and Recollec- 
tions of an Indian Oiificial," says: — 

** Marriage is a sacred duty among the Hindus, a 
duty which every parent must perform for his 
children. It fills their imagination from infancy to 
age. A family with a marriageable daughter un- 
married is considered to be under the displeasure 
of the gods, and no member of the male sex con- 
siders himself respectable until he is married. 
Nothing strikes the Hindus so strangely as the utter 
indifference of old bachelors among the English to 
their sad and deplorable condition. 

"Very large sums of money are spent m mar- 
riage feasts and ceremonies. Nothing is more com- 
mon than to see an individual in the humblest rank 
spending all that he has, or can borrow, in the 



MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 65 

marriage of one of many daughters, and trusting to 
Providence for the means wherewith to marry the 
others. The reason for this appears to be that 
under the old despotic government men could 
never feel secure of being permitted freely to enjoy 
their property. Even a man's right to the exclu- 
sive possession of his wife was not considered alto- 
gether secure under the mere sanction of religion. 
He, therefore, strengthened his security by an out- 
lay in feeding the family tribe and neighborhood 
during the marriage ceremony, which invested his 
wife with a certain tangible value. The family 
tribe and circle having received the purchase 
money, as it were, felt bound to secure to him the 
"commodity" purchased. The increased feeling of 
security to person and property under the British 
rule will doubtless cause this custom gradually to 
decline." 

A Hindu marriage is, as will easily be seen, an 
expensive affair, and usually lasts from seven to ten 
days. There is no courtship. The marriage con- 
tract is arranged by the parents, and the boy and 
girl, who are usually married at six and eight years 
respectively, are neither consulted nor given any 
opportunity of seeing each other before the cere- 
mony takes place. There are two separate cere- 
monies in a Hin du marriage. The first is, properly 
speaking, the betrothal, and the second, which 
takes place when the girl has attained the age of 
twelve or thirteen, is the real marriage. Neverthe- 
5 



66 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

less, if the husband dies before the second ceremony 
takes place, the girl becomes a widow for life. 

Marriage customs vary with different castes, but in 
most of the marriages the bride and bridegroom 
walk round an altar, on which a fire burns, three 
times, and then prostrate themselves in honor of the 
deity. After this the girl touches fire and water, in 
token of her willingness to perform household 
duties. The husband and wife then eat together for 
the first and only time in their lives. These ceremo- 
nies being over, general conversation ensues among 
the guests, or some recitations are made by any 
learned Brahmins who may happen to be present. 

After this betrothal, or first marriage, is over, the 
girl returns to her parents' house and remains with 
them until the age of twelve or thirteen. She is 
then taken to her father-in-law's house, and lives 
there with her husband. Even though there may 
be many married sons in the house, they all live 
together until the father dies, when the eldest son 
takes his place, and so on. In this way separate 
families are formed, the grown-up sons with their 
wives and children living in their father's house and 
subject to his control, the married daughters alone 
going to their father-in-law's house, where they are 
often treated with great harshness by their mother- 
in-law. The chief qualities sought for in a bride 
are not mental or moral ones, but she isi com- 
mended because she is moon-faced of graceful fig- 
ure, sweet speech, and can cook well. The highest 



MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 6/ 

praise that can be bestowed on a bride is that she 
can cook well. 

If no sons are borne by the wife, the husband is 
at liberty to take a second wife, but he must also 
maintain the first wife. The following account has 
been given by a Mohammedan gentleman with 
reference to the marriage customs of the Moham- 
medans : — 

"The priest, who sits next to the bridegroom, in- 
quires who will be the witnesses of the marriage. 
This being settled, he asks the bridegroom thrice if 
he accepts the bride as his wife, and also asks the 
father or guardian whether he gives her away. The 
bride is all this time, with other ladies, in a sepa- 
rate room. Then the priest registers the names of 
the party and witnesses, the date of the marriage, 
and the dowry. This being done, he recites some 
passages from Mohammedan Scriptures, and blesses 
the couple, raising his hands toward heaven. When 
all this is done, the bridegroom removes his veil 
and flowers from his face, which he has had on for 
nearly six hours. He gets up from his seat and 
salutes the people around him, and not he but his 
father is congratulated by them all in return. He 
then receives a cup of milk to drink. Now comes 
the last and most interesting part of the ceremony. 
He is asked to go and visit the ladies who are with 
the bride. When he reaches the door, younger 
relatives of the bride half open it, and ask a toll 
from him for admission to the room. He has to 



68 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

give them something. When they have received 
their toll, they close the door on him, and all retire 
except the bride. Then a signal is made to him to 
enter the room. He finds there the bride, all alone, 
covered with a veil which is tied around her head. 
He removes the veil, puts an ornament on her per- 
son, and gives her some sweetmeat which is at hand 
to eat. Thus the bride is first seen by her hus- 
band after her marriage, and, most probably, they 
then see each other for the first time in their lives." 

After giving an idea of the miseries of Moham- 
medan women, he says: — 

**The ideas of morality and decency among Mo- 
hammedans are so strict that a respectable Moham- 
medan husband would not think of consulting a 
doctor on his wife's illness. He would rather let 
her die than allow her face to be seen by a gentle- 
man! She would not think of protesting against it, 
as she is ground down by custom, and has no in- 
dividuality. In extreme cases of illness the most 
scrupulous husband relaxes his standard of decency 
somewhat. He allows his wife to be placed behind 
a curtain, and lets her put out her hand, for the 
doctor to feel her pulse. Even then his sense of 
the sacredness and inviolableness of her person is 
so high that he would not allow the doctor to touch 
her bare hand, but would persist in putting a thin 
piece of muslin over her hand and wrist. He 
would also blush ten times before he allowed his 
wife to put her tongue through a slit in the curtain 
for the doctor to see it." 



MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 6q 

The funeral ceremonies of different castes vary 
somewhat in details, but the following is the gen- 
eral procedure among the more respectable classes: 
When a man is dying he is placed on kusha grass; 
this is a kind of bean straw, and is supposed to 
have the efficacy of destroying sin. The relatives 
then pour into his mouth drops of milk, and call out 
their own names, so that they may be remembered 
in the future world. When the man is dead, the 
eldest son, assisted by the other relatives, washes 
the deceased's head and anoints it with oil. The 
dead body is then wrapped in a new cloth — if a 
man, in a white one; if a woman, in a red one — and 
placed on a bier in a half-sitting posture. Ground 
rice and betel are placed in his mouth. The 
women, with hair disheveled, then weep and mourn, 
and beat their breasts. Hired mourners are called 
in to keep up the lamentation when the real mourn- 
ers are exhausted. 

This being over, the body is carried out, the 
eldest son leading the way with fire in a vessel, and 
music follows behind. The male relatives alone 
follow the body, the females remaining in the 
house. If a person of distinction dies, cloths are 
placed on the ground over which the procession 
passes, the cloths being repeatedly taken up and 
placed before it. When the dead body has arrived 
at the burning-place, it is placed, with the head 
towards the north, on the funeral pyre, which 
has in the meantime been prepared. The eldest 



70 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

son then walks three times round the pyre with 
a torch in his hand and a pot of water on his 
shoulder. After this he applies the torch to the 
wood — in the direction of the head if the deceased 
is a male, but in the direction of the feet if a female. 
At the same time he lets the pot drop from his 
shoulder, so that it breaks and the water falls on 
the ground. He then bathes in water close by, and 
returns home without looking round, so that the 
deceased's sin may not fall on his head. The re- 
maining ceremonies are performed by corpse burn- 
ers hired for the purpose. 

The widow, if there is one, remains under the 
protection of the eldest son, who in all respects as- 
sumes the father's place as the head of the family. 
The widow either lives upon the property left by 
her husband, or when she has children is supported 
by them. If there is neither property nor children, 
her nearest relative supports her. Failing every- 
thing, she will go to a stranger's house and engage 
in domestic duties, by which she will maintain her- 
self 

Cremation is practiced by the Hindus with few 
exceptions. Only devotees and ascetics of the high- 
est rank, diXid malmnts, or heads of monasteries, who 
are considered specially holy, are buried. The Mo- 
hammedans always bury. After a death, the rela- 
tives of the deceased are ceremonially unclean for 
ten days, and, as already stated, shave off in token 
of mourning the kudiimi, or tuft of hair on their 
heads, and also the mustache. 



MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. /I 

The peculiarity of Hindu social life is the joint 
family system, according to which all live in subor- 
dination to the elected head, who is, generally speak- 
ing, the oldest male. In case of unfitness another 
will be elected. In this country each married 
couple forms a unit of society, capable of thinking 
and acting for themselves. But in India it is not so. 
There, when a child is born into the world, he forms 
part of a great household, consisting not only of his 
parents, but also of many others — all under the 
headship of some aged member. They may live in 
one house or in several, but they still form one or- 
ganization. 

In this great household the parents have no in- 
dependent control over their own children, nor are 
the children themselves ever consulted, but every- 
thing is done with the consent of the elders, and in 
strict accordance with the family traditions, whether 
they be right or wrong. Property is also held con- 
jointly. When a division takes place, as on the 
death of a father, each inherits only his shares 
Where, on the death of a father, a family of broth- 
ers is managed by the eldest, he is treated by the 
rest with respect, as if he were their father. The 
adoption of children is allowed, in which case they 
share equally with the children of the fathers and 
mothers who adopt them. 

The ceremony of adoption is simple. The person 
who wishes to adopt summons his relatives, and, 
while the child is standing in a large copper dish, 



72 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

addresses them thus : " We inform you that, having 
no child, we wish to adopt this one. We choose 
him for our child in this wise, that our goods shall 
belong to him henceforth as if he were actually born 
of us. He has now nothing to hope for from his 
own father. In token whereof we are now go- 
ing to drink saffron water, if you consent." Those 
present having consented by shaking their heads, 
the adopting parties wash the child's feet in saffron 
water from a vase, and drink part of what remains. 
The ceremony is now complete, and is recorded in a 
deed testified by witnesses. If the adopting father 
and mother subsequently have natural children, 
they are subordinate to the adopted^ inasmuch as 
the law makes no difference between the adopted 
and real child. 




CHAPTER VI. 

RELIGION AND WORSHIP. 

Demon Worship — Tutelar Village Deities — The Hindu 
Triad: Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva — Tree Worship — Serpent 

Worship. 

Pi 

HE Hindu is a religious person. His ideas 
of God and of his worship are peculiar to 
himself, but he is, nevertheless, intensely in 
earnest. To a Hindu his every act has a relig- 
ious meaning entering into the very fibers and 
threadlets of his life. It is the Alpha and Omega, 
the beginning and end of his existence. There is 
no fast or feast, no event of joy or sorrow in his 
life, but whatever he does he does it to the glory 
of his god. To the Hindu the Deity is literally 
omnipresent. A belief in the divine presence fills 
his whole life. 

The modern Hindu religion is of a composit 
nature. The people are no longer sharply divided 
into civilized Aryans and rude non-Aryans, but 
have arranged themselves into graduated castes of 
a great mixed population. Their religious and fam- 
ily life is a compromise between Aryan spiritual 
conceptions and non-Aryan superstitions — a com- 

(73) 



74 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

mingling of non-Aryan darkness with Ar}, an light. 
The pantheon of worship includes one set of deities 
quite aboriginal, and another which they have de- 
rived from the Brahminical system. Modern Hin- 
duism is no more the old Vedic religion than the 
great mass of the people of India are pure Aryans. 
The mixed Hindu religion of South India may be 
thus classified. 

I. Demon WorsJiip. — They hold that demons 
may have originated in many ways, but, generally 
speaking, they are the disembodied spirits of human 
beings. The majority are supposed to inhabit 
trees, but others wander to and fro. All misfortunes 
in business, all sickness of children, and all disease 
among cattle, are supposed to be caused by them. 
The unseen world is said to be hostile to man ; and 
the good-will of the demons is to be gained by in- 
cantations and sacrifices, which require the shed- 
ding of animal blood. The demons are of three 
kinds: (i) The J^cys, which take possession of men; 
(2) the boothams^ which haunt the places where 
dead bodies are burned or buried; (3) the pishauch, 
which is the most active and troublesome of all the 
demons. 

The devii temples are caliea pcycoiLS. Tney con- 
sist of a small pyramidal erection of earth covered 
with streaks of whitewash and red paint, with a 
smaller heap having a flat surface, which forms 
the altar. There is no special priestly class con- 
nected with devil worship; any, even the women, 
may act as priests or devil dancers, provided they 



RELIGION AND WORSHIP. 7/ 

are duly inspired by the demon who is invoked. 
At nights the demon is supposed to wander about, 
alluring- people from their houses in order to kill 
them. Demons are supposed to call only three 
times, and hence calls at night are never responded 
to until the fourth time. Many children are dedi- 
cated to and named after demons, in order to escape 
infantile diseases. Sometimes the eldest son is 
named after the demon worshiped by the father's 
family, and the eldest daughter after that of the 
mother's family. Demon worship is most common 
among the Shanars, or palm cultivators, of Tinne- 
velly, in Travancore, Malabar, and South Canara, 
where the population has been the least disturbed 
by Brahminical influence. 

2. Graina-devatas, 01^ Tutelar Village Deities. — 
Every village contains one temple dedicated to its 
tutelar deity. Strange to say, all the village deities, 
with one exception, who is called Ayenaur, are 
females, and have the name aminah (mother) 
attached to them. They are supposed to protect 
the village from sickness and disaster. The princi- 
pal are Mariyammah and Pidari. Mariyammah is 
the goddess of smallpox and measles. When a 
person is attacked with smallpox, the goddess is 
supposed to take possession of him, and, rather than 
offend her, the patient is often allowed to die with- 
out any remedies being tried. A non-Brahmiri 
priest, called a pujari, officiates at these temple 1. 
He anoints the deity — which is represented by a 



78 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

black stone — daily with oil, and offers sacrifices, the 
commonest of which are cocoanuts, which he 
breaks in front of the idol. Cocks, goats, and sheep 
are also sacrificed. Annual festivals lasting several 
days are also celebrated in honor of each goddess 
of the various villages. In their temples are to be 
found other images, most commonly Pillaiyar,. the 
belly-god. When Ayenaur, the male tutelar deity, 
is worshiped, propitiatory offerings are made in 
fulfillment of vows by presenting clay images of 
horses, on which the god is supposed to take oc- 
casional nightly rides. In addition to the village 
deities other smaller deites are worshiped in the 
shape of a stone or a lump of clay marked with red 
or black in secluded spots or under a tree without 
any temple. 

3. The Devas or Secondary Gods. — These are 
said to be three hundred and thirty thousand in 
number, and include the risJds (sages) and the re- 
gents of the eight cardinal points of the earth, such 
as Indra, Agni, Varuna, etc. These have no tem- 
ple, and are little worshiped. 

4. TJie Trhnurthi: Brahma^ Vishnu^ and Sliiva. — 
The word '' trimiirthi" means ''three forms." The 
majority of the people regard one or the other as 
the supreme being, though some consider them as 
a tri-unity — three in one. These are the chief ob- 
jects of worship in South India.. Bra/wia, though 
the highest in rank and dignity, has no temple 
erected to his honor and no national worship paid 



kELIGlON AND WORSHIP. 79 

to him, except the honor paid to the Brahmins, 
who are regarded as his offspring. He is said to 
write in every man's forehead his destiny — how 
long he is to Hve and what is to happen to him. 
He is also said to be the author of the Vedas, which 
he gave to the rishi (sage) Vedavyasa to promul- 
gate in the world. His wife is Saraswati, the god- 
dess of learning. 

The great bulk of the population worship Shiva. 
Though he is represented in the arts as of gigantic 
size, riding on a bull, with bloodshot eyes and ser- 
pents hanging like jewels from his ears, yet he has 
no separate image. The outward representation of 
Shiva is always the lingam. The lingam is a small 
black stone. This is carried about by his disciples 
either in a silver box round the neck or fastened to 
the arm. It is called jangaman, or " movable," in 
contradistinction to the lingam of the temples, 
which is called stauvaram, or stable. The heaven 
of Shiva is called Keilasa, and his vehicle, as al- 
ready stated, is a bull, which is always found in 
front of his temples. His wife is Parvati, and his 
two sons Vigneshvara (remover of obstacles), and 
Subramanian (diamond-like). The former is known 
under various names, meaning, son, great lord, lord 
of hosts. He is usually represented with an ele- 
phant's head and trunk, and a big stomach, and 
hence is called the ''belly-god" by Europeans. 
His image is found everywhere by the roadside 
and under trees. Many small pagodas, or temples, 



80 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

are also erected in his honor, in which he is daily 
worshiped with offerings. 

Vishnu is worshiped in numerous pagodas by 
large numbers, who regard him as the supreme be- 
ing. He is said to assume ten incarnations; that 
is, he appears to men in different forms of material 
objects ten times; for instance, in the form of a fish, 
a tortoise, a boar, a lion, a dwarf, as a man named 
Parasrama, as a king called Rama, as Krishna, and 
in the plurality incarnation, in which he was incar- 
nate in his twelve disciples, called alwars. His 
last incarnation is yet to come. His nine com- 
pleted incarnations and the tenth expected one are 
famous in Hindu religion. On these occasions he 
appeared to deliver oracles, to destroy giants, and 
to relieve the world from the woes under which it 
groaned. His wife's name is Lutchmi, the goddess 
of beauty and fortune, and his son's name Kama, 
the Indian cupid, or god of love. As the lingain 
and the yoiiy are the symbolic representations of 
Shiva and his wife Parvati, so the salagrain, a pet- 
rified ammonite found on the banks of the Ganda- 
kee, and the tulsi plant, are the symbols of Vishnu 
and his wife Latchmi. Ao^ain, what the bull is to 
Shiva that the monkeys are to Vishnu. Swarms 
of these infest the neighborhood of his temples, 
where they are kept and fed as the representatives 
of Hanuman, the monkey-god who was associated 
with Rama. The living monkey is considered in 
some sense to be divine, and no native will kill a 



RELIGION AND WORSHIP. 8 1 

monkey, even when it commits depredation in the 
fields. In many towns and villages may be seen a 
large stone image four or five feet high, in the 
shape of a monkey, which is painted red, with 
staring eyes and erect tail, and which is worshiped 
by all classes. 

Tree worship is also found in India. Trees, on 
account of their beauty and utility, are not only re- 
garded as fit abodes of the gods, but as suitable ob- 
jects of worship in themselves. This worship is to 
be found in almost all countries. The Assyrians, 
Greeks, Romans, and Druids had their sacred 
groves. In South India, also, the reverence paid to 
single trees or sacred groves is very prevalent. 
Many Brahmins like to have the sacred tulsi tree 
growing in front of their houses, and it is frequently 
found in front of temples. The pe£pul, or fig tree, 
is also invested with sanctity; and young married 
couples may be seen walking round it with folded 
hands many times, in order to gain the blessing of 
offspring. 

The serpent, on account of the celerity and grace- 
fulness of its movements and its exceptional powers 
of destruction, is an object of worship. The snake 
is associated with other deities, and is represented 
in the carved idols placed in temples. Carved rep- 
resentations of the cobra, sometimes a single one 
semi-erect with expanded hood, and sometimes two 
snakes intertwined, are frequently to be seen set 
up in groves by the roadside or under the sacred 
6 



52 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

peepul tree. Offerings are daily made at these 
shrines, and every woman who desires to have off- 
spring brings offerings of milk, gJiee (clarified but- 
ter), eggs, or flowers. Naga ^snake) stones are 
usually in sets of three. The first represents a 
seven-headed cobra. The second is a female, the 
lower portion of whose body is that of a snake. 
The third represents two serpents entwined, the 
children of the former. Naga stones, when prop- 
erly erected, are on a stone platform facing the east, 
and under the shadow of two peepul trees. They 
are most numerous near Jain temples. Living 
snakes are also worshiped. An old woman had 
an only son, a sepoy, who was ordered to Bur- 
mah. He left his mother five rupees a month out 
of his pay. She found a cobra in an ant hill, and 
made offerings of milk and eggs to it regularly, 
praying that her son might soon return. One day 
she raised her clasped hands to her head in the at- 
titude of prayer, but, coming too near the snake, it 
became frightened and bit her. She died within 
two hours. Serpent or naga worship is generally 
considered to have been introduced from the North. 




CHAPTER VII. 

RELIGION AND WORSHIP— Continued. 

Temples — Mode of Worship — Festivals — Pilgrimages- 
Omens and Superstitions— Buddhism— Fear the Predom- 
inant Feeling in Worship. 



OR the worship of the gods of the Hindu, 
pantheon temples abound all over the coun- 
try. The temples of South India are much 
larger than those of North India, and are probably 
the largest in the world. It is considered impious 
to live in a street without a temple. Not only in 
towns and villages, but on the tops of hills, in de- 
serted places, by the roadside, by tanks and rivers, 
temples are to be found. The largest temples of 
South India are those at Srirangam, Chidambram, 
Madura, Tanjore, Trivellore, Tripati, and Conjev- 
eram. That at Srirangam, near Trichinopoly, is 
nearly four miles in circumference, and is sur- 
rounded by seven walls. All the large temples are 
surrounded by high walls, and have massive towers, 
called gopiirams, covered from top to bottom with 
figures, over the four entrances. Almost all the 
temples have a tank attached to them, and there are 

(8.3) 



84 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

also pillared halls for pilgrims. Inside the temples 
are idols of gold or silver, iron or brass, and some- 
times only of clay. These idols are anointed every 
morning and evening with melted butter or milk. 
The anointing is accompanied with ceremonies 
and prayers. The idea is that after these prayers 
and ceremonies the god takes possession of the idol, 
which until then was only an image. The idol is 
then covered with garlands of flowers, or flowers 
are strewed in front of it. Not only Brahmins, but 
even Sudra priests, officiate at some of the temples. 
The Hindus of South India have no fixed hours 
for worship, nor have they any common worship, 
like Christians. Each one worships by himself and 
for himself He repairs to the temple with his of- 
fering, and makes his way to the inner sanctuary, 
where the god is placed in a niche with an oil lamp 
burning by its side. He presents his offering, con- 
sisting of cocoanuts, fruit, or flowers. He stands 
before the image with folded hands in adoration, 
muttering its name several times, or walks round 
and round the idol doing the same thing. Prayer 
in the Christian sense is unknown. He makes no 
confession of sin, asks for no forgiveness, nor does 
he desire purity and holiness. He simply prays for 
riches and prosperity, asks to be delivered from 
some calamity, and requests the god to give him a 
son, and not a daughter, on account of the expense 
which th^ latter entails. His devotions are now 
over, and, having paid his fee to the officiating 



»r " SH i i ^^My)»^ ^ ij i #f^ ^^ 








RELIGION AND WORSHIP. 8/ 

priest, he goes his way; but before doing so has 
three broad streaks either horizontally or perpen- 
dicularly marked on his forehead. These are worn 
throughout the day, and testify to the fact that he 
has worshiped in the temple, and is to be consid- 
ered as a religious person. 

Many educated Hindus in the present day wor- 
ship no idols and observe no ceremonies. They 
merely keep pictures of Rama, Krishna, or Saras- 
vati in their houses. Those who are more devout 
light camphor in the evening in front of these pic- 
tures, and decorate them with garlands of flowers, 
repeating the names of the god. Besides this daily 
worship there are special festivals connected with 
certain temples, especially those at Conjeveram, 
Tripati, Trivellore, Tirutani, Tirunamalli, Ramis- 
weram, and Srirangam. These festivals last for 
several days, and people throng to them in thou- 
sands from all parts. The principal god is carried 
round the chief streets of the town on large cars fifty 
feet high, built like one oi \\\^ gopurams , or towers, 
covered with grotesque figures and carvings of the 
gods. The idol cars move on solid wheels without 
spokes ; stout ropes are attached in front, and hun- 
dreds of people pull at them. They must be pulled 
by men, and not animals, and the progress is very 
slow. 

These festivals, associated as they are with re- 
ligious observances, have a wonderful fascination 
for the Hindu. They are largely kept up by the 



88 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

women, who look forward to them as a welcome 
respite from the imprisonment of their homes. The 
farmer also marks the progress of time by means 
of these festivals. All the leading events in his 
otherwise uneventful life are associated with them. 
A Hindu will suspend all business for ten days or a 
fortnight in order that he and all the members of 
his family, gaily dressed in holiday attire, may at- 
tend one of them, and there engage in sports, re- 
joicings, and devotions connected with some old 
historical event of national interest. These festivals 
have all the appearance of a fair. Much buying 
and selling is done, and there are all kinds of 
amusements both for the young and the old. Dev- 
otees of all kinds may be seen. Some are almost 
naked and covered with ashes. Others are dressed 
in a yellow robe, unwashed and unkempt, with a 
begging pot, consisting of a dried gourd, in the 
hand. Others, again, go about singing songs in the 
street to the accompaniment of music played on a 
one-stringed instrument like a guitar, in order to 
excite the charity of the bystanders. Men may be 
seen with iron spikes driven through their cheeks, 
or carrying an iron cage round their necks, in ful- 
fillment of some vow. 

Messengers are sent all over the country by the 
managers of all the large temples, to give notice of 
these festivals and the time of their occurrence. 
That at Conjeveram takes place in the month of 
May, and lasts ten days. It is attended by immense 



RELIGION AND WORSHIP. 89 

crowds of people from all parts. Besides the fes- 
tivals connected with certain temples, there are cer- 
tain feasts which occur once a year, and which are 
observed by all the people all over the country. 
The principal of these is Pongai, which takes place 
in the Hindu month of Tai, i. e., about the middle 
of January. It lasts three days, and is occupied 
with rejoicings and the visitation of friends. Every 
day of the previous month, the month of December, 
has been unlucky, and every day of the succeeding 
month is lucky. Hence the rejoicings. 

During the month of December, in order to ward 
off evil, women draw white lines with flour before 
the door of their houses. Upon these they place 
balls of cow manure, each bearing a citron blossom. 
The balls are picked up each day and preserved. 
On the last day of the month (December) they are 
gathered together by the women, put in a basket, 
and to the accompaniment of music, thrown away in 
some waste place. On the first day near relatives 
are feasted and entertained; the second day is the 
great day of visitation. Rice and milk are boiled 
in the open air. When it begins to simmer, all 
present cry pongai, signifying boiling. They salute 
each other by saying, " Has the milk boiled ? " The 
answer given is, "It has boiled." On the third day 
the cows are sprinkled with a mixture of saffron 
and water, their horns painted, decorated with gar- 
lands, and are then turned out to graze wherever 
they like without a keeper. 



90 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

Another important feast is the Telugu and Tamil 
New Year. The Telugu New Year falls about the 
end of March, and the Tamil New Year the middle 
of April. On these occasions each person anoints 
his body with oil, and washes with warm water in 
the morning. In the evening the family priest 
reads out from the new almanac what is to happen 
during the year. There are also fireworks, etc. 
Another feast is Pillaiyar Chavuti, when Pillaiyar, 
the son of Shiva, is worshiped as the remover of 
difficulties from all undertakings. Clay images of 
the god are made, consecrated, duly worshiped, 
and then thrown into the river or tank. The 
Ayudha or Sarasvati feast is also an important one. 
It falls generally in October. On this occasion 
each worships the tools or implements by which 
he gains his livelihood. The farmer worships his 
plow, the mason his trowel, the clerk his paper 
and pen, the scholar his books, and the women 
their rice pounders, etc. The Brahmins worship 
Sarasvati, the goddess of learning, and the upper 
classes of Hindu society make offerings of rice, 
fruit, flowers, and cloths, to their ancestors. The 
Depavali, or feast of lights, is another important 
festival. It falls usually at the end of October or 
the beginning of November. On this occasion at 
sunset small open earthen vessels containing oil and 
a wick lapping over the edge are put in front of 
every house; the humblest hut has at least one. 
They are also placed on the tops of hills, in the 



RELIGION AND WORSHIP. QI 

clefts of trees, and in other prominent positions. 
The wicks are Ht in all directions, so that there is a 
general illumination, and the effect as the darkness 
increases is very pretty. Guns are fired, and crack- 
ers and fireworks displayed. This feast is probably 
a relic of old fire worship. 

Pilgrimages to sacred shrines are often under- 
taken, and hundreds of Hindus are continually 
wandering over the country on pilgrimages. In 
various parts of South India groups of pilgrims 
may be seen in the streets, crying out, " Govinda," 
*'Govinda," ''Rama," "Rama." The women, both 
old and young, have their heads shaved quite 
bald, their hair having been presented to the shrine 
of the gods at Tripati. Pilgrims from the north 
may also be seen, each carrying two baskets united 
by a bamboo and borne on the shoulders. Each 
basket contains numerous small phials filled with 
holy water from the Ganges, or some other sacred 
stream, and hermetically sealed. When all his 
wanderings have ceased, these are either distributed 
by the pilgrim among those who have contributed 
towards his expenses, or else poured out as a liba- 
tion on the occasion of the consecration of a temple 
or an image. The proper way of performing a 
pilgrimage is to walk the whole distance barefooted ; 
but this has fallen into neglect in many cases in the 
present day, and the easier and more comfortable 
method of traveling by rail is adopted. Occasion- 
ally, however, a pilgrim may be seen measuring the 
distance with his length. 



92 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

The doctrine of Transmigration underlies the 
whole system of Hindu beUef — that is, the passage 
of a human soul through the bodies of many ani- 
mals. The souls of all animals are held to be those 
of men, thus degraded on account of their former 
sins, but capable, after a long succession of births 
and deaths through long ages, of getting freed from 
these sins, and attaining final happiness. There is 
a curious custom prevalent among devout Hindus 
of feeding the ants, whenever they are found cluster • 
ing on the surface of the ground, with flour and 
sugar. It is commonly stated that this is done out 
of charity, and with a view to preserve life, but we 
believe it has a deeper meaning, and that the poor 
deluded man imagines that by so doing he is feed- 
ing his mother, or wife, or child, now turned into 
an ant. 

The Hindus are extremely superstitious, and be- 
lieve in omens, both good and bad. It is consid- 
ered a good omen, for example, if, on setting out on 
any business, a man sees a crow fly from left to 
right, or if he meets two Brahmins, a married 
woman, or a jackal. It is considered unfavorable, 
however, if the crow flies from right to left, or if he 
meets a single Brahmin, a widow, or a cat. A per- 
son sneezing, and the sudden extinguishing of a 
light, are also considered bad omens, but the notes 
of the lizard are considered a good omen. 

Buddhism as such is virtually extinct in South 
India. Those who call themselves Buddhists are 



RELIGION AND WORSHIP. 93 

In reality Jains, and are in some respects an offshoot 
of Buddhism, The Jains deny the divine origin 
and infalhbihty of the Vedas, or sacred writings. 
They believe in a Supreme Being, and revere cer- 
tain holy men, twenty-four in number, who have 
acquired, by self-mortification, a station superior to 
the gods. They show extreme veneration for the 
sanctity of human life, which they manifest in vari- 
ous ways; they never eat or drink in the dark, for 
fear they might unconsciously swallow an insect, 
and thus cause pain to some departed human soul. 
Some Jains carry a broom, to sweep the ground 
before they tread on it. Large portions of Hindu 
mythology are incorporated into the sacred books 
of the Jains, and the worship at their temples does 
not differ materially from that at Hindu temples. 
The Jains are, however, unwilling to be confounded 
with Hindus who acknowledge caste and Brahmin- 
ical authority; they never associate with them at 
festivals nor intermarry; they devote themselves 
chiefly to commerce and agriculture, and are found 
in various provinces. The chief priest resides at 
Chittanur, near Tindivanum, where there is a large 
Jain temple. 

The question is often asked, *' What are the feel- 
ings which pervade the minds of the Hindus when 
they worship their deities?" Unquestionably, we 
think, the predominant feeling is one of fear and ap- 
prehension. They fear some calamity will happen 
to them if they neglect their worship. Educated 



94 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

Hindus say that they do not in reaHty worship 
these dieties, but only the Supreme Being through 
them. The idea is, however, more speculative than 
real. At the same time, we cannot help believing 
that their religion has a monotheistic basis, that is, 
a belief in the one God, beneath all the "wood, hay, 
and stubble" of legend and material worship — that 
they have a vague, indefinable sense of some one 
Supreme Being who is not far from every one of 
them. Sometime they had the truth, but, not lov- 
ing the truth, they substituted the creature for the 
Creator. 




CHAPTER VIII. 

HINDU WOMAN. 

Her Ideal and Real Status — The Hindu Widow — Female 
Education and Zenana Work — Female Medical Profes- 
sion. 



*HE first piece of knowledge that we have 
about the women of any branch of the 
Aryan race is that it was the duty of the 
maidens of India to milk the cows — a fact revealed 
by philology when the Sanscrit word '' duhitrV 
(daughter) revealed an origin akin to milkmaid. It 
was considered an honorable office, since the cow, 
the most invaluable animal ro pastoral communities, 
came to be endowed with almost supernatural attri- 
butes. In Vedic times to respect a woman was 
not only thought to be right, but was also en- 
joined as a sacred duty. Hard outdoor work was 
not to be assigned to her, for her place was at the 
domestic hearth, making it happy by her pres- 
ence, soothing man in his labors, and consoling him 
in his sorrow. Man was commanded to protect 
her with tenderness and please her with gifts. The 
young girl was free to select the bridegroom of her 
choice, and her family was bound to prQv:ide her 

( 95 ) 



g6 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

with a suitable dowry, to which her brother was 
recommended to add the finest heifer of his herd, 
the purest saffron of his crop, and the lovehest jewel 
in his casket. Her husband should treat her with 
deference. Husband and wife should go hand in 
hand into the temple, where the woman offers up 
fragrant incense upon the altar. Her prayers and 
hymns were acceptable in the sight of Deity. There 
was nothing like complete seclusion. Such a thing 
was neither sanctioned by the Vedas nor did it ob- 
tain in practice. In the Vedic age women appeared 
in public. Some of the most beautiful hymns were 
written by queens and princesses. 

The next landmark in the degradation of women 
is the Code of Manu, that is to say, the formal 
promulgation of the Brahminic faith. To the nat- 
ural preference for male posterity, which is common 
to all early states of society, there had now suc- 
ceeded a religious horror at not leaving behind a 
son, who alone could perform certain ceremonies 
which were considered essential to secure the par- 
ents' final happiness. In "Manu's Institutes" we read 
that women should be sheltered by the fostering care 
of their fathers, husbands, and brothers; that eter- 
nal misery is in store for those who rob them of 
their possessions ; that every happiness attends the 
house in which they are happy ; that the right- 
minded man should have but one wife, as the virt- 
uous wife should have but one husband. Manu 
even declares that " one mother is more venerable 




(From a native drawing^.) 



SNAKE CHARMERS. 



See fages ^g, 6q. 



HINDU WOMAN. 99 

than a thousand fathers." The kind and chivalrous 
treatment of women is inculcated. Manu, while 
enjoining her to honor her husband and preserve 
her purity, enjoins also the husband *' to have no 
strife with her," and to consider her as his own body. 

Another risJii (sage) says, " Strike not even with a 
blossom a wife guilty of a hundred faults." More- 
over, of the eight forms of the nuptial ceremony 
enumerated by Manu, one form invested females 
with the power of choosing their future lords. 
The maids appeared before a large group of men 
assembled for the purpose, and made their choice, 
not only by the outward appearance of the men, but 
by their character, antecedents, and accomplish- 
ments. 

After Manu came Buddha, who raised the cry 
against the tyranny of caste and the priestcraft 
of Brahminism. Men and women were equal, 
according to his doctrine ; but it was not in the 
pure happiness of home that they should seek 
salvation. Rather, they should bury themselves in 
the seclusion of monastic life, and, by destroying 
passion, and contemplating the Deity, make ready 
to enter Nirvana, the absorption of the soul into the 
universal spirit. The mind of Buddha was entirely 
possessed by the fascination of existence in con- 
vents and secluded places; and this was one reason 
why Buddhism early lost nearly all its quickly- 
conquered empire in India. It is worthy of remark 
that in Burmah, where Buddhism has survived, and 



lOO NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

has preserved something of its original character, 
women enjoy a large measure of social freedom. 
Most of the shops, it is said, are kept by women; 
they are not restricted from conversation with men ; 
the daughters receive the guests, and are allowed 
every opportunity of seeing their suitors, and are 
at liberty to marry anyone they like best, whether 
he be rich or poor. 

Next to the purely Vedic writings, the Sanscrit 
epic poetry is held in the highest honor by the 
Hindus. The greatest of these poems, the Rama- 
yana, is one long chant in honor of woman's virtue. 
The other Indian epic, the Mahabaratam, contains a 
whole gallery of female portraits. We will only 
quote the words of one personage in the Mahabara- 
tam : " The wife is the honor of the family. The 
wife is the man's vital spirit, is the man's half, is his 
best friend, and the source of all his felicity. The 
wife with her endearing discourse is the friend in 
solitude, the mother to the oppressed, and a refresh- 
ment on the journey in the wilderness of life." 

The first signs of woman's degradation in India 
date back to a time anterior to the Christian era; 
its consummation was the work of those repeated 
Moslem invasions which took place during the 
tenth and succeeding centuries. The march of 
Mohammedanism has been the bane of women. 
The social position of women in India at the pres- 
ent time is to a great extent one of degradation ; 
they are regarded very much in the light of goods 



HINDU WOMAN. 10 1 

and chattels. They are largely distrusted, and are 
kept in check by a jealous, perpetual oversight. 
A husband never seems willing to trust his wife 
out of 'his sight. Should they walk out together, 
they do not proceed side by side, on an equality 
with each other, but the wife either goes a few steps 
in advance of her lord, who follows as her jealous 
guardian and protector, or else follows her husband 
a few steps behind, like a slave. She is usually ad- 
dressed with abrupt harshness, and obeys with ob- 
sequious docility. If there is any burden to be car- 
ried, she is made to carry it, while he walks free 
and unburdened. 

The rules of social life in regard to the sexes are 
so strict that it is contrary to a Hindu's notions of 
etiquette and propriety to inquire after the health 
of his wife and daughters. English people often 
seriously offend in this respect on their first arrival 
in the country. With regard to the female sex, 
strict silence is imposed. Should a male friend call 
on his neighbor, the wife retires until he departs. 
Women, generally speaking, do not associate with 
men, and are rarely spoken to by them. There is 
no such thing as courtship in India. A Hindu 
rarely sees his wife, and certainly never talks to her 
before their marriage. It is manifest, therefore, that 
jealousy and fear have a much stronger influence 
over the minds of a Hindu husband and wife than 
love and friendship. Love may and often does 
spring up afterwards, but at the commencement of 



102 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

married life there cannot be any bond of affection 
between them. 

The birth of a female is not hailed with joy, but 
deplored as a calamity. She is treated as an infe- 
rior, subjected to privations, exposed to insults, lost 
in the slough of superstition, fleeced by priests, and 
victimized by relatives. Childhood is the only pe- 
riod of real joy which a Hindu girl has. She is then 
free to play about as she pleases, never troubled to 
learn anything but what she can pick up from the 
women about her, and both petted and spoiled by 
her relatives. But this season of happiness soon 
comes to an end. At the age of twelve or thirteen 
the spoiled child is sent off against her will to join 
her husband's family, entering it, not as American 
brides enter their future homes, at the head of the 
female community, but at the bottom. Child though 
she -still is, her childhood is past forever, and she 
is transformed into a young woman, too often by no 
means a happy one. Seclusion adds to the sorrows 
of her existence. 

Hindu women from the time they give up their 
childhood to the time of their death are to a larc^e 
extent kept apart from the public, and live an aim- 
less life. They lounge about from place to place. 
They spend their time, after household duties have 
been attended to, mostly in putting up their hair 
and pulling it down again, in putting on their jew- 
els and taking them off again. The only-excite- 
ment they have is a quarrel, which comes once in 



HINDU WOMAN. IO3 

a while to relieve the monotony of their existence. 
But while saying all this, we do not admit that 
they have no influence. Theoretically they may 
be of no account, but practically they are often 
all in all. In many cases the supreme rulers are 
mothers-in-law, who rule their subjects with a rod 
of iron, or else an ignorant, superstitious grand- 
mother is the secret wire puller, who arranges 
everything according to her own sweet will. 

But hard as the lot of an ordinary Hindu woman 
is, that of a Hindu widow is tenfold worse. It is said 
that there are twenty-one million widows in India, 
and half of them are virgin widows. They are de- 
prived of all that women value in this world, their 
ornaments are taken away, they are dressed in very 
coarse clothing, their hair shorn off, they are made 
to subsist on the coarsest food, compelled to fast 
till health breaks down, kept from joining in any 
amusements, forced to be the unpaid drudge of the 
family, considered fit only to amuse the children, 
and taught to consider themselves as creatures of 
ill omen. How much Hindu women dread widow- 
hood is shown in the fact that to call a woman a 
widow is to offer her a dire insult. It is the cus- 
tom of infant betrothal and child marriage which 
entails the greatest misery upon the women of 
India, and is at the root of every other. It is the 
obstacle to the spread of education, the stumbling- 
block in the way of Christianity, and the cause of 
hundreds of thousands of child widows. Stunted 



I04 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

growth, disease, lack of stamina, of moral energy 
and physical ability, are a few of the evils attributa- 
ble to this source. 

But a great change has come over the better 
spirits of the country within recent years. There 
was a time — not many years ago — when a woman's 
personal attractions and culinary achievements were 
regarded as constituting her sole claim to attention, 
and her mind was thought incapable of culture. It 
was thought improper to send a girl to a public 
school — nay, a source of positive harm. For a 
woman to learn poetry, music, and art, and to be 
known to possess a knowledge of these things, was 
to stamp her in the eyes of all men as low and 
vile. A virtuous woman in India was an ignorant 
domestic drudge. The education of women was 
wholly foreign to the tradition and usages of the 
people, and they looked with suspicion on the new- 
fangled but well-meant efforts of the English to 
raise their womankind out of the slough of igno- 
rance, to which their sages had agreed to consign 
them, as the safest and most virtuous place for the 
sex to occupy. 

Looking at all the facts of the case, and consider- 
ing what the habits of thought of the people really 
are, it is not a little remarkable that so much has 
been already effected in the way of female educa- 
tion. A few years ago schools were opened, at 
which the attendance of a few girls of the poorest 
families was obtained by a system of rewards which 



HINDU WOMAN. lO^ 

was very much like paying them for attending 
school. Gradually these female schools began to 
take deeper root, and to exert an influence on more 
influential portions of the community. 

After some years the plan of giving rewards for at- 
tendance was given up, the education only being 
given. Some time afterwards the parents were in- 
duced to supply the materials for education, such as 
slates, books, etc. Still later a small fee, and then 
a larger, and yet a larger one, was charged, until 
now the amount thus raised, though far too small, 
is sufficient to afford considerable help in bearing 
the whole burden of these school expenses. And, 
better than this, the idea of female education has 
taken such a hold that the Hindus are themselves 
engaging in it. But female education is entirely a 
growth of the new time, and can be expected to 
flourish only among the new generation of the edu- 
cated and enlightened. Progress will be made in 
the centers of activity and knowledge first, and af- 
terwards in the more retired towns and villages. 

For some time it was a serious question how to 
reach the women of the better classes, who were 
secluded in certain apartments, or large houses 
called zenanas, and were not allowed to appear in 
public like women of inferior rank. The difficulty 
was solved by the wives of missionaries visiting 
these native ladies, and there imparting instruction 
to them. In this way access has been gained to 
thousands of families of good social position, and 



106 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

large numbers of females connected with them are 
receiving a useful secular and Christian education. 

Several societies have been established for the 
express object of sending out well-educated Chris 
tian young ladies, from Britain and America, to la- 
bor in this important department. Educated Hindu 
young men, also, seeing the position occupied by 
English ladies in their families by virtue of their 
education, have become anxious that their own 
wives should be as well educated, and thus become 
companions to them, and not mere ciphers and 
drudges. 

Nevertheless, it should not be forgotten that, as 
regards the great mass of the female population, very 
little has yet been done for their education and en- 
lightenment. According to the report of the direc- 
tor of public instruction of Madras for 1885-86, the 
number of females at school was fifty-eight thousand 
seven hundred and ninety-seven. Large and en- 
couraging as this may seem, it represents only 
about three in a hundred of the girls of school-going 
age. From the returns for 1887-88, just issued, it 
appears that there were sixty-four thousand three 
hundred and twenty-eight girls in public schools, 
and eight hundred in private schools. 

These numbers, it is true, represent only the pu- 
pils in schools wnich furnish returns to the govern- 
ment; but even supposing that there are as many 
more under instruction in other schools, a very 
small proportion of the girls has been reached. 



HINDU WOMAN. lO/ 

Besides, the great majority of the pupils are in 
the primary department, showing that parents do 
not yet permit their daughters to share as fully in 
the advantages of education as they ought to do. 
Further, there is a great lack of well-qualified fe- 
male teachers, and of pure, healthy, instructive lit- 
erature for females to read. But the progress of 
female education and the beneficent zenana mission 
work cannot now be arrested. Present advance is 
great, and future prospects are bright. 

We must not forget to mention the beneficent 
scheme inaugurated by Lady Dufferin, which has 
for its object the provision of medical aid for females. 
The women of India have become accustomed to the 
idea that it is now possible to obtain the services of 
a trained medical attendant of their own sex, and the 
calling of a lady doctor has taken its place among the 
liberal professions of the country. The scheme has 
succeeded beyond the most sanguine expectations 
of its promoters. Already there are more than two 
hundred and twenty female students in the Indian 
medical schools, and the demand for aid is greater 
than can be met. No one acquainted with the un- 
told sufferings and miseries of Hindu women, aris- 
ing from malpractices and the reckless waste of hu- 
man life resulting therefrom, can doubt that it is 
destined to be fraught with great good to the country. 

Madras has always taken a foremost place in the 
provision of medical education for women, and was 
the first to open the doors of its local medical college 



I08 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

to them. Already from it four candidates have 
graduated in medicine, several have qualified for 
lower grades, and some have proceeded to Britain 
to complete their studies. 

Girls are being educated, some are being trained 
as medical women, and Christian households are 
being formed. As Professor Monier Williams says: 
**Hope for India lies in this. The missionary band 
must carry the ark persistently round the Indian 
home, until its walls are made to fall, and its inner 
life exposed to the fresh air of God's day, and all 
its surroundings moulded after the pattern of a pure, 
healthy,Christianhousehold,whose influences leaven 
the life of a family and the nation from the cradle to 
the grave." Who can estimate what change for the 
better will be wrought when a new generation shall 
have arisen, and those who are now the pupils of 
schools will have become the heads of many house- 
holds, the mothers of future generations? Chris- 
tian charity cannot sow in more promising fields 
than the institutions which mould the minds and 
hearts of the females of India. A terse Tamil prov- 
erb says, *'As is the thread, so is the cloth; as is 
the mother, so is the child ; " and a bright future is 
in store for India, now that the future mothers of 
the country are beginning, in so large a proportion, 
to pass under the influence of education. The 
women of India represent the solid strength of Hin- 
duism. The soul of superstition has its home in 
the bosoms of Hindu mothers. It must be assailed 



HINDU WOMAN. IO9 

there in its native strength if we would conquer In- 
dia for Christ. 

It is from the mother that the child receives its 
first impulse along the paths of virtue, and it is by 
educating the mother that a great and powerful na- 
tion is most surely created. 

We believe that India is on the eve of great 
changes, or, rather, of rapid progress in this depart- 
ment, and that the church of Christ ought, by 
means of female schools, and a mission to the ze- 
nanas, to take an active and earnest share in aiding 
it. There is no movement of greater interest, or 
more hooeful in its results, than that of female ed- 
ucation, whether in schools or in zenanas. Better 
days are at hand; it is the morning that cometh, and 
not the night; the summer, and not the winter, that 
draweth nigh ; and in the future, when the down- 
trodden females of India will arise, as by a social 
regeneration, and stand erect in their recovered 
womanhood, it will be seen that while the deliver- 
ance has come in many ways, yet the Christian and 
philanthropic societies of Britain and America have 
played no unimportant part in hastening on that 
happy time. 




CHAPTER IX. 



SOME TRAITS OF HINDU CHARACTER. 

Virtues of the Hindus — Their Vices and Evils: (i) Untruth- 
fuhiess and Deceit; (2) Debt; (3) Insincerity and Love of 
Money; (4) Credulity and Superstition; (5) Love of Dis- 
play and Fame. 



NE cannot fail to notice the many excellent 
traits in the Hindu character. Many of 
them are lovable in many ways. While 
they are subtle and acute, there is also much that 
is good and true, such as their patient perseverance, 
calm endurance under suffering, filial obedience, rev- 
erence for superiors, tenderness towards animal life, 
faithfulness in service, and toleration of religious 
differences. They have great power of self-restraint 
and consider it to be a mark of a true religious na- 
ture to be free from anger under provocation. They 
not infrequently argue with the sole purpose of 
ruffling one's temper. If they succeed in so doing, 
you have fallen greatly in their estimation ; if not, 
they consider you to be a virtuous man. On one 
occasion we were arguing with some Brahmins, who 
were doing their utmost to excite our temper; we 
managed, however, to preserve our equanimity. 

(1.0) 



SOME TRAITS OF HINDU CHARACTER. Ill 

Afterwards a man in the crowd said to his friend, 
•' He does not get angry." ''No," said the other; 
"they do not send out people who get angry !" The 
higher and middle classes are cleanly both in their 
persons and in their attire. They are civil and po- 
lite in their manners, though it must be admitted 
that this is often put on, and does not necessarily 
imply any real regard or affection. 

Bishop Caldwell, an experienced missionary, speak- 
ing of native Christians in India, says: "I maintain 
they have no need to shrink from comparison with 
Christians in a similar station in life, and similarly 
circumstanced, in England, or in any other part of 
the world. I think I do not exaggerate when I 
say that they appear to me in general more teach- 
able, more considerate of the feelings of others, and 
more respectful to superiors, more temperate, more 
patient and gentle, more trustful in Providence, bet- 
ter church-goers, yet free from religious bigotry, 
and, in proportion to their means, more liberal than 
Christians in England holding a similar position in 
the social scale. I do not for a moment pretend 
that they are free from imperfections; but when I 
have compared them with what I have seen and 
known of Christians in other countries, I find that 
their good qualities have left a deeper impression on 
my mind than their imperfections." 

It is of the utmost importance both on social and 
political grounds that a good feeling should exist 
between the European rulers and the natives of the 



112 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA 

country. Not infrequently young civil and military 
servants, on their first arrival in India, despise and 
ill treat the Hindus, as though they were a savage 
and ignorant people rather than an enlightened and 
civilized one. Would it not be wise for all who ex- 
pect to go to India to remember that they are go- 
ing, not to a barbarous and savage country, but to 
a country famous for its antiquity and civilization, 
and having among its inhabitants good and intelli- 
gent men who deserve to be treated with kindness 
and consideration ? 

But admiration for the many excellent qualities 
of the Hindus should not blind us to their defects 
and failings. The leading national vices and evils 
of the country appear to us to be the following: — 

I . Lying and Deceit. — While not going so far as 
Lord Macaulay in thinking that " deceit is to a 
Hindu what beauty is to a woman, what a sting is 
to a bee, and what a horn is to a buffalo," yet one 
cannot fail to be struck with this all-pervading 
evil. It is hydra-headed, and pervades the country 
through and through. It meets you everywhere 
and in various forms. Your own house servants, 
outwardly respectful and obsequious, deceive you 
every day of their lives. A man comes to see you, 
and you question him on some matter; he will 
hardly ever give you a straightforward answer, but 
will try to discover what reply you wish, and will 
answer accordingly, without the slightest regard as 
to whether it is true or not. Honesty and truth 



SOME TRAITS OF HINDU CHARACTER. II5 

are little understood and appreciated. A Hindu 
has little more idea of truth than a blind man of 
color. His moral sense has become so dull that he 
mistakes for truth that which goes by that name 
among- the people with whom he lives. 

2. Debt. — This is another evil widely prevalent. 
Almost all classes are involved in debt — those with 
fixed salaries as well as those whose incomes are 
fluctuating and precarious. This is the normal con- 
dition ofthe people. The native of India is almost 
always in debt ; \{ he is not, it is generally because 
no one will lend him anything. There is a proverb 
in Tamil, that '' where there is no debt there is no 
honor." We once heard of a village near Delhi 
where the people were poor and free from debt. A 
canal was made; the value of the land increased; 
the people became prosperous, and also became in- 
volved in debt. The reason why they were not in 
debt before was that the land was too poor to afford 
security, but as soon as the value ofthe land im- 
proved, they at once got into debt. 

Marriage and funeral expenses are the chief 
causes of debt. A man drawing a salary of ten 
rupees a month will not hesitate to borrow one 
hundred rupees or two hunded rupees at twelve 
per cent interest to celebrate his marriage, the whole 
of which is spent in presents and festivities. Farm- 
ers borrow money to pay their rents to the govern- 
ment. The money lender is always ready to lend, 
provided the man is in service, and able to pay the 



Il6 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

interest monthly from his wages. This evil pervades 
the Christian church also, and it will take some time 
before it is eradicated. 

3. Insincerity , Selfishness, and Love of Money. — 
Most Hindus live a double life. Abroad they are 
freethinkers — reformers — at home they are far dif- 
ferent. They expound excellent principles of mo- 
rality, and have just views of men and things, but in 
the midst of their doniestic surroundings do the 
very things they so zealously denounced elsewhere. 
Personally they may disbelieve in astrology, but 
when any important work is to be performed they 
do it on some auspicious day determined before- - 
hand by an astrologer. 

Many of them believe in their inmost souls that 
the ceremonies performed by the family priest, and 
the prayers uttered by him, are a sham, and a 
mockery, yet they submit to them, for fear of being 
reviled as apostates from the ancestral faith. 

They know that the best thing they can do for 
their sons is to keep them single until they can 
earn for themselves enough to maintain wife and 
children ; but such is the tyranny of custom that 
they must get them married as soon as they arrive 
at man's estate, even though they themselves have 
to bear the burden of supporting them and all the 
children they may bring into existence. 

As to their selfishness and love of money, Rajah 
Sir Madava Roa gives the following picture: ''The 
accumulation of money becomes a life passion. In 



SOME TRAITS OF HINDU CHARACTER. II 7 

the eager pursuit of wealth the conditions of health 
are neglected. No exercise is taken. No recrea- 
tion is resorted to. The man takes no leave. He 
denies himself change of place, climate, and scene. 
He is irregular as regards food, sleep, and other 
necessary functions. He denies himself all personal 
enjoyment by a rigorous parsimony. If friends call 
upon him, he says he is very busy, and sends them 
away. He grows increasingly fat as time goes on. 
Health being neglected, he is blessed with few or 
no children. He denies assistance to poor and suf- 
fering relatives. His ideal is to accumulate a cer- 
tain large sum of money. He is reluctant to retire 
from business or work, and clings to the same with 
fatal tenacity. Diseases and infirmities creep in, 
but are unnoticed. Doctors and friends give gen- 
tle hints, but in vain. In the absorbing passion for 
money, he has not contemplated the uncertainty of 
life. He is suddenly overtaken with sickness, and 
is quite unable to make his will. Shortly after he 
dies, unregretted, and is soon forgotten. Denying 
all enjoyment to himself, he has denied it to friends, 
family, and relatives. The long-accumulated money 
goes to idlers or vicious persons. A flood of litiga- 
tion ensues, and money is dissipated in a hundred 
ways." A sad picture, but true. \ 

4. Credulity and Superstition. — This is another 
prominent trait in the Hindu character. They not 
only believe the most absurd stories contained in 
their religious books, but any marvelous story they 



IlS NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

hear is at once credited, without ever questioning 
its truth. They beUeve that there are holy men 
(rishis) Hving in certain places who perform most 
wonderful miracles, though they have never wit- 
nessed any one of them. 

They are superstitious to a large degree — super- 
stition binds them hand and foot. Whenever they 
take any important step in life, such as weddings, 
journeys, education of children, a priest is always 
consulted as to whether the time is auspicious or 
not. They are hedged in by fears and prejudices 
on all sides. Dreading their priest, their deities, 
and daily portents, their lives are rendered bitter 
by a ceaseless anxiety to avoid some malicious 
fortune, they know not what. 

5. Love of Display and of Fame. — This passion is 
peculiar to all classes, and large sums of money 
are spent in its gratification. They build temples, 
rest houses for travelers (chattranis), dig wells, plant 
groves of mangoes, and such like, all for the sake 
of fame and with a love of display. They give 
away alms to the poor, and feed many Brahmins, 
in order to get praise of men. They always let 
their right hand know what their left hand does. 
They would rather give away a large sum pub- 
licly than a small sum privately. 

Their love of display manifests itself in their dress, 
their marriage ceremonies, and their daily official 
life. Every petty official has one or two attendants 
waiting on him, whilst the simplicity of attire of the 



SOME TRAITS OF HINDU CHARACTER. II9 

highest European officials, and the quiet, unosten- 
tatious way in which they frequently move about 
the country, fills them with astonishment. To see 
a European walking instead of riding seems strange 
and incongruous to them. 

We have often been accosted, when walking out 
in the country, with the remark, "You are walking ! " 
as much as to imply you ought to be riding. Fre- 
quently when we have gone into a village to preach, 
and have left our vehicle or horse by the roadside, 
the remark has been addressed to us in surprise 
and wonderment, **Have you come walking? " 




CHAPTERX. 



EDUCATION. 

Education and Preaching Mutually Supplementary, not An- 
tagonistic— Notwithstanding Rapid Progress of Educa- 
tion Ignorance Still a National Evil — Great Need cf 
Technical Schools — Importance of Education as an 
Evangelistic Agency — Its Fruits — Attitude of Educated 
Young Men towards Christianity — Desire of the Natives 
Themselves for a Complete Education, Religious and 
Secular — Need for Some Special Evangelistic Agency 
in Every Missionary Institution — A Larger Use of the 
Press Desirable. 




NDIA is a unique country. It is vast in 
1^^ extent, and teeming with population. It is 
^^^ the home at once of the highest mental 
faculties and the grossest superstition. It is the 
stronghold of social principles which spread through 
every grade of the community, penetrate every crev- 
ice of the popular life, and deprave and paralyze 
the people, restraining all free thought and action. 
It is a country in which all forms of labor require 
to be persistently and patiently carried on. Its 
compact masses must be widely and deeply moved 
by the gospel before converts are^made in large 
numbers. Preaching and teaching are the two 
(120) 



EDUCATION. 1 2 i 

main forms of Christian effort. They are some- 
times set one against the other, as though they 
were mutually antagonistic. We have engaged in 
both, believe in both, and both have been attended 
with beneficial results. We regard them as mut- 
ually helpful. To the influence, on the one hand, 
of education in moulding the opinions of the people 
may be attributed the feeling of greater kindness 
with which the preachers of the gospel are received. 
On the other hand, not a few who may have re- 
ceived their first impressions in a mission school 
have had those impressions deepened and quickened 
by attending the meetings and hearing the lectures 
and addresses of the distinctively preaching mis- 
sionary. 

Fifty years have passed away since Lord Ma- 
caulay's *' Minute" settled in favor of the English 
language the controversy which had long been rag- 
ing as to whether the highest form of education 
given by the government to the people of India 
ought to be in the oriental classical languages of 
the country or in English. Though that Minute 
was the source whence the great movement in 
favor of English education originated, yet little 
was done beyond the establishment of a high 
school in each presidency, and the starting of a few 
mission schools, till the famous dispatch of Sir 
Charles Wood (late Lord Halifax), which may be 
regarded as the Magna Charta of Lidian education. 
That dispatch laid down the principle that as the 



122 NATIVE LIFE I,N INDIA. 

work of education was too great to be accomplished 
by the government alone, committees of native gen- 
tlemen and missionary and philanthropic societies 
should be encouraged, by a system of grants in aid 
of their schools, to co-operate in the great work. 
It also enacted that universities, after the model of 
the London University, should be established in 
the three presidency cities of Calcutta, Madras, 
and Bombay. This was done in 1857, and since 
then the development of education has been great. 
Village schools, high schools, and colleges, of a class 
similar to those existing in England, are flourishing 
in every direction over large tracts of country. The 
people are being gradually educated in the highest 
forms of knowledge according to the best-known 
methods of Europe. An educated class, with ideas 
of progress, virtue, and freedom, drawn from the 
fountains of English literature, has sprung up, and 
the mental slavery of former times has received its 
death blow. 

Education in conjunction with Christianity is 
revolutionizing India. Notwithstanding this prog- 
ress, however, ignorance is still a national evil. Ac- 
cording to the educational report of the Madras 
presidency for 1885-86, the total number of schools 
and colleges furnishing returns to the department 
was sixteen thousand and fourteen, containing three 
hundred and ninety-seven thousand and forty male 
and fifty-eight thousand seven hundred and ninety- 
seven female scholars. These numbers are no doubt 




A WOMAN DECORATING HER DOORSTEP. 
(From a native drawing.) 



See J>age 8q. 



124 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

in themselves large, but yet they represent only one- 
sixth of the boys and one-thirty-fifth of the girls 
of a school-going age. The total number of chil- 
dren reading in primary schools on March 31, 1886, 
was four hundred and nineteen thousand one hun- 
dred and seventy-three, which was less than one- 
eleventh of those between six and eleven years of 
age. From the returns for 1887-88, issued by the 
government of Madras, which we have just seen, it 
appears that there were four hundred and sixty-four 
thousand six hundred and fifty-four boys under in- 
struction in public institutions, of whom only one- 
sixteenth were pupils of colleges, whereas almost 
ninety-two in every hundred were receiving instruc- 
tion in primary schools and classes. 

As has been well said: *' The leaven of educa- 
tion has only just begun to work, and the lump 
to be leavened is a bewildering mass. It works, 
too, under conditions of extreme difficulty, con- 
nected with the social customs and general pov- 
erty of the people. It is too early to expect a gen- 
eral renaissance of intellectual life in India. The 
work to be done has been, and still is, to a large ex- 
tent, destructive. The ground has to be cleared of 
weeds and the ruins of centuries of ignorance and 
apathy, before the foundation of a genuine national 
intellectual life can be laid. But the forces are at 
work which tend surely, if slow'y, to that end. The 
overturning process is going on with ever-increas- 
ing energy. The influence of Western religious 



EDUCATION. 125 

thought on its ethical sides as an organ of intellect- 
ual and political movement, is steadily introducing 
higher ideals of life, a more adequate conception 
of duty, and a sense of the dignity of responsi- 
bility. The movement is slow, but it is one which 
gathers impetus as it proceeds. Meanwhile there 
is a good deal which may be done in the improve- 
ment of the highest class of teaching power." 

The great need of the country at the present 
time is the establishment of technical schools for 
the instruction of the people in various mechanical 
industries. The present system of education is too 
wholly literary. Far better make the son of a 
farmer a better farmer, and the son of an artisan a 
better artisan, than, by withdrawing them from the 
plow and the workshop, create a class of discon- 
tented place seekers clamoring for government em- 
ployment, while all such avenues to public employ- 
ment are more than crowded. 

As has been already stated, this form of mission- 
ary work is often looked upon with suspicion, be- 
cause imperfectly understood. In bur opinion, a 
mission without provision for high-class missionary 
education would be as vitally defective as a mission 
with no provision for preaching the gospel in the 
vernacular or native tongue. There you have a 
class of hearers in the most impressible period of 
life. There are no disturbers to interrupt. The 
congregation is always the same — the same minds 
are daily acted upon. The doctrines of Christian- 



126 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

ity are presented in their connection and mutual 
bearings. Truth is taught, not in fragments but in 
a system. Above all, Christian character and Chris- 
tian example, in their living, visible power, are 
brought to bear on the truth. The congregation 
not only hears but sees Christianity. Moreover, 
you have there a class of Hindu society possessing 
wealth and influence, which no other mission agency 
at present at work would adequately influence. 

But the success of education as a missionary 
agency depends entirely on the efficiency of the re- 
ligious instruction given, and on \}i\^ personal influ- 
ence which the missionary brings to bear on the 
scholars. Where this is properly done, the work is 
successful. Further, the number of Christian mas- 
ters should always be sufficient to give the school 
a Christian tone and character. The present writ- 
er's experience embraces both preaching in the na- 
tive tongue and English education, and, while 
expressing a preference for the former, he has reso- 
lutely set himself against the idea that a missionary 
teacher is not doing missionary work as truly and 
thoroughly as any of his brethren. By means of 
the educational institutions of the country, Hindu- 
ism is being '* killed through its brain," as Dr. Duff" 
used to say. The growth of mind and enlarged 
knowledge thus attained exert a direct influence on 
their position as Hindus. They tend to weaken 
and destroy national and family prejudices, to ex- 
pose the selfishness and tyranny of caste, to put 



EDUCATION. 127 

down the pretensions of the Brahminical priesthood, 
and to thoroughly undermine the popular idolatry. 
The young men trained in mission schools manifest 
in many ways the fruit of their Christian education. 
Though not converted men, many live a superior 
moral life, and are distinguished above those around 
them for truthfulness, gentleness, uprightness, dili- 
gence in business, and a desire to benefit others. 
They are convinced that if any religion on earth 
be true, it is Christianity. Yet they remain in name 
Hindus, quietly observing so much of the current 
idolatries, ceremonies, and customs of their families 
as the public opinion around compels them to fol- 
low, and waiting for the good time when the univer- 
sal change will set them free. 

A missionary states that a short time ago he 
came in contact with a young Hindu gentleman 
who was a graduate of the university. He was a 
Brahmin of the highest caste, and his father had 
been likewise a Brahmin of the highest caste, and 
highly educated. This young man said that when 
his father was dying, he called his children round 
his bed, and said to them, " If you should ever 
change your religion, you must become Christians, 
because," he said, " I do not know whether any re- 
ligion is true, but if any it is Christianity." That 
is a remarkable confession from the apparently un- 
broken citadel of Brahminism. Besides, the teach- 
ing of government and secular colleges destroys 
the ancestral faith without supplying a better. It 



128 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

turns multitudes of educated young men into dis- 
ciples of Bradlaugh and Ingersoll, whose writings 
are widely circulated among them. Missionaries 
are driven, therefore, in self-defense to maintain a 
firm and aggressive attitude against the cultured 
infidelity which is honeycombing the upper and 
middle classes of Hindu society. If we wish to 
preserve India from falling from "gods many and 
lords many" into a state of utter godlessness, it is 
essential to maintain some well-manned missionary 
institutions — manned not by mcj^e scholars, but by 
earnest Christians. 

We believe that no greater disaster could happen 
to India at the present time than the withdrawal of 
missionaries altogether from the higher education of 
the country. We trust that none of the great so- 
cieties will be induced to do so by the appeals, 
however importunate, of these arm-chair critics. 

Moreover, it is a remarkable circumstance that 
the Hindus will in many cases more readily send 
their sons to mission schools, where they know they 
will receive a Christian as well as a secular educa- 
tion, than to the government schools, where they 
will receive only secular instruction. Popular as 
the system of government education is, there is this 
general objection to it on the part of the natives, 
that it undermines and overthrows their long- 
cherished religious convictions — it has removed the 
swaddlmg bands of Indian morality, such as they 
are — without supplying others in their place. They 



EDUCATION. 1 29 

consider it strange, if not improper, on the part of 
government to exclude religion from the course of 
study pursued in its institutions. The Maharajah 
of Mysore, in a speech made at the distribution of 
prizes at the Mysore College, said: *' I must confess 
to a feeling of anxiety in my mind that the educa- 
tion given in our schools and colleges is one-sided, 
and that unless supplemented by an education cal- 
culated to arouse and develop the emotional and 
religious element in our nature, it cannot raise the 
moral or even the intellectual tone of our society, 
or purify the national taste, or refine the intercourse 
of private life." It cannot be denied that there can 
be no complete education unless religious and secu- 
lar instruction are combined. 

It should be mentioned that there is a tendency, 
which ought to be carefully guarded against, of relig- 
ious instruction in mission schools being encroached 
upon, owing to the increasmg demands of univer- 
sity education. As has been well said: "Schools 
thoroughly aflame with evangelistic life are of great 
missionary value. But the tendency of the mere 
intellectual to crowd out the spiritual, the head to 
starve and enfeeble the heart, demands watchfulness 
and extreme care." Every missionary institution 
should, therefore, have some special gospel agency 
working side by side with it, for the purpose of fol- 
lowing up and deepening impressions on those who 
have been at one time under instruction, but who, 
being engaged in the battle of life, have no one to 

9 



130 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

remind them of the lessons then learned, or to 
quicken the impressions then made. The educa- 
tional work is manifestly one-sided and inadequate 
so long as there is no such agency working in con- 
junction with it, for the express purpose of meeting 
with those in whose heart the seed of divine truth 
has been already sown, and who may Jdc uncon- 
sciously longing for something more satisfying than 
the world can give. If every mission were to set 
apart an able foreign missionary and a well-educated, 
English-speaking native evangelist to devote their 
whole time to visiting this class of natives in their 
homes, receiving visits in return, holding meetings 
and Bible-classes among students and among non- 
Christian teachers, delivering public lectures and 
addresses, and having social gatherings, much good 
would accrue, and some choice sheaves for the 
great Master would be brought out. 

A freer, fuller use should also be made of the 
press. The stream of atheistic and corrupting lit- 
erature rushes with unabated force through the 
government offices and colleges, bearing before it 
much of the heart and genius of the rising genera- 
tion of the country. Skeptical, or, rather, professedly 
antichristian, books of the lowest and least reputa- 
ble kind, which offer no truth in the place of that 
they attempt to destroy, find a ready market among 
men educated or half educated in the English lan- 
guage. In the present condition of India, Avhen 
thought is awakening on so many subjects, when 



EDUCATION. 



131 



public opinion is forming, and when so much Htera- 
ture of unhealthy character is being widely scat- 
tered, it is the duty of the Christian church to guide 
as far as possible the current of opinion, and to dif- 
fuse by means of the press a Christian spirit and a 
knowledge of Christian truth. 




CHAPTER XI. 



EVANGELISTIC WORK. 




Paramount Importance of Preaching — The Best Times and 
Methods to be Adopted in Preaching — Some Arguments 
and Discussions — Concentration of Effort Desirable — 
Christian Literature Should Be Widely Circulated — Re- 
sults of Bazaar Preaching. 



HE preaching of the gospel to the Hindus 
in their own tongue is rightly regarded as 
^^^^ the principal duty of a missionary's life, and 
is obviously the most natural way of spreading the 
gospel. The most suitable times for preaching in 
India are the early morning and at sunset. The 
streets are then crowded with people, arrayed in 
many colors, but chiefly white, all walking about 
and talking. The noise of an Indian street is like 
the "noise of many waters," but it mostly proceeds 
from human voices. Shops line both sides of the 
street, where merchants, in a large or small way of 
business, sitting generally under the shade of a 
thatch or bamboo screen, shout the excellence of 
their wares. People pass and repass in an endless 
stream. Here a small group of artisans ; there a 
little knot of clerks in white flowing garments mak- 

(132) 



EVANGELISTIC WORK. 133 

ing their way to or from the pubHc offices; here 
coolies carrying burdens, and there belted govern- 
ment officials bearing messages, with many others 
of various occupations and employments. 

Into the midst of this gay and confused throng the 
Christian preacher with his assistant makes his way, 
and takes his stand under the shade of some tree or 
on some vacant spot by the side of the public road. 
It is usual to commence with the reading of a passage 
of Scripture or the singing of some Christian song 
with or without instrumental accompaniment. The 
people are passionately fond of music, and a crowd 
immediately gathers. We do not take a text, and 
say "firstly, secondly, then thirdly, and finally one 
word in conclusion," but we talk to the people in a 
simple, homely, conversational way. How much 
better, also, the adoption of this course would be 
in many congregations in Christian lands! 

The addresses in all effective bazaar preaching 
are short — not more than fifteen minutes or so each. 
The best and usual plan is to have three or four 
short addresses, interspersed with singing. The 
preacher needs to be wise as a serpent, and to strike 
forcibly. The most telling addresses are those 
which make free use of quotations from their sacred 
books and are full of pointed illustrations. Imagi- 
nation is to a Hindu very much like his second self, 
and analogies glitter on the thread of his talk like 
the beads of a necklace. They know little or noth- 
ing of logic, and long, elaborate processes of rea- 



134 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

soning are a mere waste of time. Many an audi- 
ence has been dispersed by dry and prolonged ex- 
positions of the ten commandments and such like. 

It is not safe, moreover, to conclude that because an 
audience listens patiently it is, therefore, interested. 
It has happened on more than one occasion that an 
audience has listened for some time, apparently with 
rapt attention, to a missionary addressing them in 
their ow7i Imigtiage, and at the end have quietly in- 
formed the speaker that they are unacquainted with 
English! It is possible for a Hindu to have his 
whole soul apparently absorbed in a subject, and 
yet for his real thoughts to be as far from it as the 
east is from the west. 

The speaker is not allowed to speak for long, as a 
general rule, without someone interrupting him to 
ask a question or raise an objection. The Hindu is 
naturally fond of argumentation on religious topics, 
and the crowd always becomes denser as soon as a 
discussion is started. All such discussions should 
be firmly declined until the close. The questions 
are frequently very shrewd and are generally asked 
for the sake of testing the ability of the speaker, 
and have no serious purpose about them. Those 
who ask them are usually not in earnest; the ques- 
tions are merely surface inquiries with them, and 
not blood questions. As a specimen of some of 
their arguments the following may be given : — 

"You say that the Christian religion is the only 
true religion. Now we see as a matter of fact that 




A FEMALE WATER CARRIER. 

(Froin a native drawing.) 



136 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

there are many religions in the world, just as there 
are many different kinds of fruit. There is the 
mango, guava, custard apple, and the plantain. 
Each has a peculiar taste and sweetness of its own. 
Some prefer one, some another. So it is with the 
different religions of the world. Some prefer one, 
and some another, according to their taste and idio- 
syncrasy. Your religion is good for you, and ours 
for us." All arguments, however, are not equally 
good. Speaking once on the absurdity of idolatry, 
we illustrated it by pointing out how they took a 
stone, and, after breaking it into two pieces, placed 
one on the doorstep and trod upon it, while the 
other was carved into an image and worshiped. 
To this the reply was that there was nothing incon- 
gruous in such a thing, for here were two women — 
one was our wife, the other our mother-in-law; the 
one we respected, the other we kicked ! 

Our teachings in the mission field are, for the 
most part, elementary. The being and fatherhood 
of God, the sin of idolatry, and the sinfulness cf all 
sin, the gift of a Saviour, and the main facts of our 
Lord's life, his dying for our sins, his resurrection 
and ascension, his mediation and return to judg- 
ment, repentance and faith, the regenerating work 
of the Holy Spirit, the nature of Christian wor- 
ship and Christian life — these are the doctrines 
most frequently insisted on. The people hear these 
truths proclaimed; some receive the message, pur- 
chase our Christian books, become inquirers and 



EVANGELISTIC WORK. I 3/ 

afterward converts. But large numbers listen to the 
preaching, acknowledge its truth, laugh at their 
idols, and go away unconcerned. 

The question is often raised as to the best method 
of preaching the gospel in India. Our own belief 
and practice have been to recognize what is good and 
true in the Eastern religions, and to enforce the 
necessity of the whole gospel of Jesus Christ for 
saving lost souls. "The gospel preached to the 
Hindus should be in adaptation to those relics as 
much as the integrity of the truth will allow, and 
not as little as human ignorance or caprice will tol- 
erate." We believe that whatever is true in Hindu- 
ism will leap forth in responsive echo to its comple- 
ment as exhibited in Christ, and will prove its truth 
by uniting with it. The glory of Christianity con- 
sists in this, that it spreads its tent over the whole 
of mankind, and everything that is true to the in- 
stincts of mankind is expressed, enforced, and es- 
tablished in Christianity. 

Again, the question is often asked whether, in 
addressing the Hindus, the errors of their system 
should be exposed. To this we reply in the words 
of one well acquainted with India: "Unquestion- 
ably, if the Hindus were a serious, reflecting people, 
deeply in earnest in religious matters, it might be 
sufficient to set forth simply the excellency of the 
Christian religion, and leave the people to discover 
the deficiency of their own systems. But seeing that 
they are blinded by their own idolatrous creed and 



138 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

prejudices, that their reasoning powers have for 
long ages been warped by evil principles, that they 
scarcely understand how, when two principles are 
mutually contradictory, one must be given up as 
false, nothing else than a clear statement of the 
truth and a full exposure of evil will induce them 
to see and receive the gospel as a message of glad 
tidings. A surgical operation is necessary before 
the cataract can be removed from their spiritual 
vision, and this operation is the exposure of the er- 
rors of their system. At the same time this should 
be done in such a way as not needlessly to excite 
their ill-will or wound their feelings. ' With the 
wisdom of the serpent should be united «the harm- 
lessness of the dove." 

Besides preaching in the streets and bazaars, 
missionaries make use of lecture halls, rooms, and 
small buildings erected by the side of the public 
thoroughfares, called zayats, which are lighted with 
lanterns hung from the roof or upon its supporting 
posts, and which present an attractive appearance 
when lighted up in the evening. This gives order, 
system, and convenience to the efforts of the mis- 
sionary. 

Instead of formal proclamations from platforms 
and such like, a good plan adopted by some mis- 
sionaries is what may be called the Socratic method, 
namely, to get into the very midst of the people and- 
begin by asking them questions. The same ques- 
tions may be put again and again, till a few truths 



EVANGELISI^IC WORK. I 39 

are fairly deposited in the minds of some, at least. 
In this way one finds out what they know and 
what they do not know. Great benefit also re- 
sults from appealing to one's own experience when 
preaching to the heathen. Though we may not be 
able to convince them by logical argument of the 
truths we proclaim, we can say, I know that I have 
realized this and that ; and a positive utterance of 
that kind always carries with it a certain amount 
of weight. 

As the teaching of the mass of the people the 
principal facts and doctrines of the Christian faith 
is the great need of India, tours, or itinerancies, 
are made into the surrounding towns and villages. 
Every such vernacular preacher takes a certain 
limited tract of country and works it regularly and 
systematically, making a stay of ten days or so in 
chief towns, leaving no part of the place unvisited. 
Thus by constant preaching or conversation he gives 
all a chance of hearing, and at the same time visits 
all the villages within a radius of several miles. 
After having worked this tract of country, he passes 
on to ''the regions beyond," adopting a similar 
plan. Such a method, though slow, brings the 
missionary into close contact with the people, and 
secures a deposit of truth often fertile in permanent 
results. The greatness and worth of such a method 
repeated over a whole country's breadth cannot be 
overestimated. 

The ereat fairs and festivals of the county are 



140 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

also visited. The good seed of the kingdom sown 
amid the noise and confusion of the bazaar and 
the crowded festival has sometimes found the 
*' good ground," and yielded fruit to the glory of 
God; but we believe experience bears out the fact 
that village visitation faithfully followed up has 
yielded a larger harvest than evangelistic toil in 
such places, or even in the larger cities and towns. 
The greater quiet and decorum which prevail in 
these little village congregations, gathered together 
in the veranda of some private dwelling or in the 
village headman's house, make the preacher feel that 
his words go straighter to the mark, and are not 
beaten back into his face, as in the noisy bazaar or 
the crowded fair. 

In all our evangelistic efforts an important help 
is the selling of Christian books and tracts. The 
missionary should remain for a time among the 
people after the preaching is over, engage in familiar 
conversation with them, visit the principal houses, 
and either sell a Christian book or leave a tract be- 
hind. This has been our invariable custom. It re- 
quires great tact and patience, but the missionary 
should personally engage in it, and thus encourage 
the native helpers. 

The divine blessing on the printed page, without 
the voice of the living preacher to enforce and ex- 
plain its teaching, has been so marked in India 
that every effort should be made to extend the cir- 
culation of good books. 



EVANGELISTIC WORK. I4I 



The results of preaching are not few. To hun- 
dreds and thousands Christianity is no longer a 
new and '' strange doctrine," but a familiar topic of 
conversation and discussion. Intelligent questions 
about the leading doctrines of Christianity prove 
that it has been pondered by thinking minds. 
Confidence in pagan myths and hoary superstitions 
has been manifestly shaken, open opposition has 
signally decreased, and a higher-toned morality is 
spreading among the people. 

In many places leading men, though unprepared 
to break the shackles of caste and ancient usage, do 
not hesitate publicly to declare their conviction 
that the Puranas are false and the Bible is true. 
A good feeling towards Christianity prevails more 
and more widely among the people; Christian prin- 
ciples, apart from the facts and doctrines on which 
they are based, are becoming more and more pop- 
ular; people speculate as to the possible or proba- 
ble Christianization of the whole country a century 
hence; actual converts from all classes have been 
made; many promise that they will openly profess 
themselves Christians at some future time, and 
there are large numbers of secret disciples who 
have broken with their idols, and given up many 
heathen customs connected therewith, who have 
kissed, as it were, the hem of Christ's garment and 
passed on, but have not moral courage to come out 
entirely and confess themselves on the Lord's side. 
We often hear of men who have caught up some 



142 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

stray word, or received a tract from some passing 
missionary, and who, having carried away the seed 
in their hearts, have been living almost as Chris- 
tians remote from all churches and unknown by 
any. Distance in some cases and timidity in others 
swell the ranks of those secret disciples. Though 
their names are not written in the roll-calls of our 
churches, or in missionary reports and statistics, 
they are none the less the real disciples of Christ. 
When we reflect upon the many false ideas on 
all subjects exploded, the amount of accurate knowl- 
edge imparted, the spirit of thought and inquiry 
aroused, the love of purity and truth excited, the 
restraint imposed on open wickedness, the prej- 
udices removed, the accustoming of the people to 
the very terms of the gospel, and the causing of 
new ideas of truth to enter into their minds, in 
however crude a form; when we think, also, of the 
hundreds around the various mission stations who 
are standing somewhere between the two kingdoms, 
convinced, though not converted, we cannot help 
coming to the conclusion that among the many 
agencies leading on to India's social and spiritual 
regeneration, these evangelistic efforts of mission- 
aries form no unimportant part. 




CHAPTER XII. 

HAVE MISSIONS BEEN A FAILURE? 

Success Twofold : (i) Individual Conversions: Converts, 
Their Steady Numerical Increase— Numerous Secret 
Disciples— Quality of the Converts. (2) Social Reforma- 
tion : Loosening of the Bonds of Caste— Female Educa- 
tion—Widow Remarriage— Decay of Faith in Hinduism 
—Growth of Religious Fraternities— Christianity Has 
No Rival to Fear — Outlook for the Future. 



'HAT success have Christian missions met 
with in South India? What is the present 
condition of society among the various 
classes of Hindus? What are the influ- 
ences that reign amongst them? How far has 
contact with Christianity and Western civihzation 
modified their social economy? Has caste lost any 
of its power? Have its degrading distinctions and 
observances fallen into decay? Do the supersti- 
tions of the ignorant still ride roughshod over the 
convictions of the enlightened? What is the evi- 
dence that the gospel is really leavening the mass of 
heathendom? Questions such as these sueeest 
themselves to everyone interested in the well-being 
of the teeming millions of India. It is not our in- 
tention to answer these questions fully, but simply 

( 143 ) 



144 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

to point out some of the results of missionary effort, 
some of those social and religious changes which 
are more or less visible in Hindu society, and which 
indicate satisfactory and encouraging progress. 

Missionary successes may be looked at from two 
standpoints: (i) Individual conversion; (2) social 
reformation. 

I. When we look at the direct results of missions, 
we make bold to say that, so far from their having 
been a failure, success has largely attended them. 
The fallacy of Canon Taylor, in his recent article 
on the subject, consists in assuming that the ratio 
of progress is always the same, whereas the ratio 
of progress increases at a rapid rate. We are too 
apt to forget the power of the Spirit of God, the 
effect of Pentecostal seasons of blessing, which are 
often the outcome of years of patient and earnest 
Christian toil. With regard to India, the Madras 
presidency has been, as yet, by far the most fruitful 
field of Protestant missions in that country. The 
following figures, taken from carefully-compiled 
statistics, will show the results which have been 
achieved between the years 1851 and 1881, when 
the last census was taken: — 

1851. 1881. 

Native ordained agents 12 235 

Native lay preachers 306 i,444 

Native churches 161 2,758 

Native Christians 74,176 299,742 

Native communicants 10,334 70,607 

Native contributions rupees 82,902 



HAVE MISSIONS BEEN A FAILURE? I45 

The increase has been general over the whole 
field, but more markedly so in some parts than in 
others. The accessions have been most numerous 
among the lower classes and from the non-caste 
population, such as the Shanars, of Tinnevelly and 
Travancore, the Malas and Madigas of the Nellore 
and Cudappah districts, and the Pariahs of the 
Madura and North Arcot districts. In the villages 
the advance has been more rapid than in the towns. 
The higher castes and wealthy classes have resisted 
the truth stoutly; the actual converts from among 
these classes have been comparatively few, but as a 
rule they have been men of power, who have added 
strength and solidity to the Christian community. 

There is no need to be ashamed of a gospel that 
has not laid hold of the upper and educated classes. 
The gospel thus spread at first. Intellectual revo- 
lutions begin at the top and filter down; religious 
revolutions begin at the bottom and rise, and it is 
always the *' lower orders" that are laid hold of first. 
''Not many wise men after the flesh, not many 
mighty, not many noble, are called ; but God hath 
chosen the foolish things of the world to confound 
the wise; and God hath chosen the weak things of 
the world to confound the things which are mighty." 
A devout and highly-educated native ministry is, 
however, one of the great and pressing needs of the 
country. 

Then the results which appear are no measure 
of the results which have actually been attained. 
10 



146 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

There are large numbers of ''secret disciples," men 
who, like Nicodemus, confess not Christ "for fear," 
who are kept back from public confession by fear of 
persecution and social ostracism. Who can esti- 
mate the numbers of these? We assert fearlessly 
that they are as many as, if not more than,' the 
actual converts in South India at the present time. 
Till the acceptance of Christianity becomes more 
popular and general, the number of " secret disciples " 
will continue to be large. Elijah thought he was 
the one and only faithful man in the worst days of 
Ahab's reign, but, unknown to him, the Lord had 
rescued seven thousand men whose knees had not 
bent to Baal. Looking at the figures given above, 
and taking into account what cannot be given, who 
can deny that there has been real and marked suc- 
cess ? 

With regard to the quality of the converts, we be- 
lieve that to an extent equal to that of the churches 
of our own country, they have honored that pro- 
fession by a consistent walk and conversation. No 
doubt some have disgraced their confession. But 
was there nothing of that kind in the apostolic age? 
Did the apostle Paul never have to complain of 
those who had forsaken him, " having loved this 
present world?" 

The native churches contain, it is true, men who 
are imperfect in knowledge, deficient in zeal, and 
scant in liberality, but, nevertheless, true men, who 
are struggling honestly and manfully against the 



HAVE MISSIONS BEEN A FAILURE? 1 47 

vices and corruptions of the heathen society around 
them. In this respect they are not unHke the 
churches mentioned in the New Testament. De- 
preciators of mission work often look only at the 
weak side of converts, forgetting that many such 
converts were Christians in Ephesus, Corinth, and 
Colosse in the days of the apostles, and that the 
warnings and rebukes of the Epistles are exactly 
suited to the churches planted in the mission stations 
of South India in the present day. 

Again, if Europeans see such miserable speci- 
mens of Christianity, the heathen on their part too 
often see such unhappy specimens of European 
Christians as to make them doubt the superiority 
of Christianity to their religions. It is a notorious 
fact that nowhere is there to be seen so low a type 
of Hindu Christianity as is to be found in those 
towns where it is brought most into contact with 
our own people. It is from seeing such as these 
that people speak contemptuously of native Chris- 
tians, and imbibe a prejudice against missions. 
Strangely true, but most suggestive, is the fact that 
the most unsatisfactory native Christians are those 
engaged in employments which bring them much 
in contact with Europeans. 

The best native Christians are those who live in 
small towns and villages remote from the large 
cities, and who have little or no intercourse with 
Europeans, except the missionary and his family. 
These exhibit a simple faith, a patience under suf- 



148 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

fering, a calm resignation to God's will, and a belief 
in the efficacy of prayer, not to be surpassed any- 
where. These, and such as these, are*'the joy and 
crown" of the missionary; they would be an honor 
to any Christian community, and are known to few 
Europeans. 

Moreover, is it not true that in so-called Chris- 
tian countries drunkenness and debauchery, vio- 
lence and commercial dishonesty, attain large pro- 
portions, and that people apologize for this state of 
things by saying that good and evil, tares and 
wheat, will always be mingled in the world? May 
not the same be said with tenfold more force of 
native Christians, who have only recently emerged 
from the grossest ignorance and superstition? 
Anyhow, British or American Christians live in 
too large a glass house to make it advisable for 
them to throw stones at native Christians, and the 
latter will bear favorable comparison with the 
Christians of this or of any other country. Sir W. 
Muir, formerly lieutenant-governor of the North- 
west Provinces, said, at the Reading Conference in 
1883, ''Thousands have been brought over, and in an 
ever-increasing ratio converts are being brought 
over, and they are not shams or paper converts, but 
good and honest Christians, and many of a high 
standard." 

2. Looking now at the second standpoint from 
which missions may be viewed, namely, social ref- 
ormation, one cannot fail to be struck with the mag- 



HAVE MISSIONS BEEN A FAILURE? I49 

nitude of the changes that have taken place. It is 
impossible to speak of native society without tak- 
ing into account that withering institution, caste, 
which is unquestionably the most potent obstacle 
to the gospel, and the most resolute opponent to 
social progress and general enlightenment. It is 
the ax which has been laid at the root of all com- 
munity of feeling, action, and aspiration. To keep 
his caste inviolate, to observe certain ceremonies, to 
propitiate the gods with offerings, is the whole duty 
of the Hindu. Obviously, the only way to perpet- 
uate the distinctions of caste was to ignore, and as 
far as possible to obliterate, the moral sense, and to 
restrain all independent thought and action. This 
Hinduism has succeeded in doing for long ages, 
and its power would not even now have been im- 
paired but for the entrance of a light which is fast 
dispelling the darkness of ignorance. Christianity, 
Western science and literature, and growing com- 
mercial interests, are the forces now arrayed against 
it; and the humiliations it has suffered within recent 
years may safely be regarded as indicating the final 
issue of the contest. Caste is only a part of the 
larger system of Hindu idolatry; and it would be 
strange if the truth which has in numerous instances 
broken the power of idolatry had not also loosened 
the hold of caste. A battery brought to bear on 
an enemy's stronghold may make a breach only on 
one spot ; but the ceaseless cannonading may have 
had the effect of so shaking the walls of the fortifi- 



150 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

cations as to render them useless for purposes of 
defense. In like manner, the damage which Chris- 
tianity and education have done to the ramparts of 
Hinduism is greater in extent than the breaches 
that have been made. These forces have shaken 
the whole fabric — a fact which its defenders are the 
first to acknowledge. Superstition cannot flourish 
in the light of knowledge, and it can be easily un- 
derstood how the enlightenment which is fast be- 
coming general among the upper classes should 
have largely shaken their faith in the Vedas and 
Shastras. But while this revolution has been going 
on among the higher classes of the people, the 
other grades of society have had their faith in Hin- 
duism greatly shaken by missionary education and 
preaching, and by the circulation of the Bible and 
other religious books. This is evident from the de- 
clining interest in the great annual festivals, and 
the complaints of the Brahmins that the gifts of the 
people and their reverence for the gods are not 
what they used to be, and also from the kind of 
reception now accorded to the messengers of the 
truth. 

The movements in favor of female education and 
the widow remarriage question also illustrate the 
manner in which the moral influences abroad in the 
land are undermining the old constitution of native 
society. There is a comparatively strong party of 
educated and enlightened Hindus who are endeav- 
oring to turn the tide of public opinion in favor of 



HAVE MISSIONS BEEN A FAILURE? I5I 

widow remarriage, and already a score or more of 
widows have been remarried. This party keeps 
up a ceaseless agitation on the subject, and by 
learned dissertations abounding in quotations from 
the Vedas and Shastras, by newspaper articles, by 
songs and dramas of varied merit, seeks to turn the 
tide of public sympathy in its favor. The agitation 
thus persistently kept up proves that they have not 
lost faith in their cause, or in the power of moral 
truth. It also illustrates the reality of the revolu- 
tion that is overtaking Hindu society. 

We have not yet had time to witness the results 
of this great department of missionary work, per- 
haps the most important department — the work of 
female education. In the female schools and in the 
mission to the zenanas lie the germs of a revolution 
such as India has not yet seen. There we go to 
the fountain-head, and when the home is pure, all 
will be pure. The battle of Christianity, we believe, 
will largely be fought out in the zenanas, in win- 
ning the women of India to Christ. 

But not only are female education, widow remar- 
riage, and the loosening of the bonds of caste among 
the beneficent influences now working in Hindu 
society, but the Hindu mind is in anxiety and con- 
cern about the moral and religious views, so op- 
posed to its own way of thinking, which are shaking 
the foundations of native societv. It is true that, 
while Hindus have been affected by the divine 
claims of Christianity, they do not generally accept 



1^2 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

it, yet it is also true that they have become veiy 
fearful on the subject of their own religion. Edu- 
cated men in every town and city begin to perceiv e 
and acknowledge the untenableness of idolatry, and 
of the superstitions connected with it. They are 
impressed, also, with the low standard of morality 
fostered by their religion, and with the much higher 
standard enforced by Christianity. 

The people are becoming ashamed of Hinduism. 
Stories of the vilest character which were formerly 
accepted as true are now explained away, and every- 
thing of a higher moral value is brought forth from 
the forgotten past to prop up a fast-failing cause. 
The thousands of copies of the New Testament and 
other Christian literature which have been circu- 
lated among the students of high schools and col- 
leges have been moulding their minds and leavening 
their words, opinions, and thoughts, until at last 
there is growing up a school of men who let idola- 
try drop away from them, or with greater energy 
and principle fling it aside. A school of men have 
arisen who cannot sympathize any longer with the 
old institutions of their fathers, but who turn aside 
and feel a greater sympathy with Christian truth 
than with anything which has come down from 
their ancestors in the old time. But for the time 
being they are perplexed as to the right course to 
follow. It goes against the grain to abandon utterly 
the old faith and to embrace an alien creed. Chris- 
tianity appears to them as an enemy to everything 



HAVE MISSIONS BEEN A FAILURE ? I 5 3 

distinctively Hindu. They fail to see that it is uni- 
versal, and not merely European. Hence many are 
endeavoring to carve out a new religion for them- 
selves by adhering to certain primitive forms of 
Hindu belief, and expanding them so as to meet the 
necessities of modern Hindu thought. They are 
endeavoring to trace back the Hindu faiths to their 
purest sources, and to give the past a new fulfillment 
through the wider knowledge of the present. This 
is emphatically the attitude of the Hindu mind in 
South India at the present time. 

Others, becoming eclectics, select prominent ten- 
ets from several creeds, especially from Christianity, 
gather up the whole into one, and so form a new relig- 
ion, containing, as they suppose, the cream of all re- 
ligions. Nevertheless, there is more honesty, more 
truth, more virtue, and more right religious feeling 
than there ever was. Not that the change in these 
respects is very distinctly manifest, for deceit and 
vice of many forms are still distressingly prevalent. 
But there is a wider, deeper sympathy with all that 
is pure and noble, holy and good, than ever existed 
before. Without doubt, India is responding to the 
potent touch of Christianity. We are not to con- 
sider the numerical insignificance of Christianity as 
compared with the population, but its vastness as 
compared with what the number of Christians was 
less than a hundred years ago. Far beyond the nu- 
merical strength of Christianity in South India, as 
indicated above, is the strength of the Christian po- 



154 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

sition itself. Indeed, the comparatively small pro- 
portion of the Christian population to the whole 
makes it almost difficult to speak of "it as one of the 
great religions of India, if it were not just for this fact, 
that it is evidently a living religion amidst the dead 
and the dying. The religious fraternities, which are 
springing up on all hands, are due to the elevating 
power of Christian principle. Just as the Gnostic 
heresies were among the factors of early Christian- 
ity, so we must reckon the Brahmas among the fac- 
tors of modern Indian Christianity. 

Though the educated Hindus do not readily em- 
brace Christianity, yet their own religion is relaxing 
its hold upon them. Christian doctrine is almost 
universally assented to, but at present it is only in 
rare cases that the will is aroused to break away 
from the solid system of caste and custom which 
forms the social fabric. That this is a natural stage 
of transition from an ancient historic religion to 
Christianity, history abundantly testifies. The cul- 
tivated classes among the Greeks and Romans 
passed through such a period of skepticism, after 
the popular mythology had ceased to satisfy and be- 
fore Christianity had secured its hold. The relig- 
ious societies springing up in India are only fresh 
instances of a vague and unsatisfactory longing for 
something better than their old religion. 

Looking, then, at the indirect results of mission- 
ary enterprise, such as the increased enlightenment 
of the people, the numerous reforms in their social 



HAVE MISSIONS BEEN A FAILURE ? I 5 5 

condition as well as in their principles of action, 
the inquiries that are everywhere being made into 
the truths of the Christian religion, the universal 
acknowledgment of its superiority to their own re- 
ligion in regard to the high morality which it incul- 
cates, the laxity of large numbers, especially those 
educated in mission and government institutions, in 
the practice of idolatrous rites, the formation of re- 
ligious fraternities like the Brahmo Somaj, etc., 
which are more or less patterned after Christianity, 
the prevalence of a desire to know and worship God 
as a Divine Father and Friend, no one can deny that 
the changes which Christianity and education have 
effected in the social and religious condition of the 
Hindus of South India are very great. 

The old errors, delusions, and superstitions to 
which they have been wedded for long ages, are 
fast losing their hold on the sympathies of the ed- 
ucated classes, who on all sides are breaking away 
from the mental bondage in which they have for 
long years been enslaved. They are being more 
and more affected every year by English ways and 
manners, English civilization and life, and are con- 
scious of the impartation of a new spirit and a new 
energy to their inner natures. The leaven is in the 
meal and the results are slowly and silently mani- 
festing themselves. 

The work of evangelization may seem to pro- 
gress slowly to some eyes, but it is not really so, 
when we take into account the vastness of the pop- 



156 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

ulation and the intense conservatism of the people. 
A handful of coloring matter thrown into a vessel 
of water colors it immediately, but to color a lake 
requires many a handful of coloring matter and 
much time. The apparent slowness of the progress 
of Christianity should, therefore, deceive no one. 
''The Lord is not slack concerning his promise, as 
some men count slackness." *' One day is with the 
Lord as a th(5usand years, and a thousand years 
as one day." 

The similarity between the condition of the coun- 
try now and the state of the Roman world when 
the first ambassadors of the cross went forth to pro- 
claim the gospel, has often been remarked. Wide- 
spread skepticism marked that period; intelligent 
and thoughtful men more than doubted the popular 
creed ; the ancient moorings had parted ; the ties of 
superstition had been loosened. Sects, such as the 
Gnostics and the Marcionites, sprang up, heathen 
in heart and origin, but acknowledging some of the 
truths of Christianity. Human thought began to 
center more and more around the person of Christ, 
till Christianity permeated the empire. 

It is even so now to a large extent in South 
India. The first stage, when Christ and Christian- 
ity and everything connected with them were de- 
spised, hated, and, if possible, destroyed, has mostly 
passed away. A change has come over the think- 
ing mind, which shows that the second stage has been 
entered upon. Hindus do not so much oppose Chris- 



HAVE MISSIONS BEEN A FAILURE? 1 57 

tianity as admit that some parts of it are worthy of 
being considered, and even embraced. They begin 
to acknowledge the truth and beauty of. the moral 
teaching of the Bible. The idea of the one God 
that it presents is not distasteful. The one difficulty 
is Jesus Christ and his divinity. The storm is rap- 
idly concentrating its strength and fury around his 
sacred person. The one question still to be settled 
is, "What think ye of Christ?" Christianity has 
no rival to fear. Mohammedanism cannot be called 
an aggressive religion, at least so far as South 
India is concerned. There are only two systems 
to our mind which seriously dispute the claims of 
Christianity to the allegiance of the people, viz., 
infidelity and Brahmoism. 

Is it probable, then, that Hinduism will be sup- 
planted by infidelity? We think we can answer 
decidedly in the negative. If the history of India 
teaches anything, it is that the Hindus are essen- 
tially a religious race. They banished Buddhism 
on account of its atheistic character, and they will 
never endure a negation of God and faith. Will, 
then, the passing away of Hinduism, and the vacuum 
left thereby, be filled up by Brahmoism? Here, 
also, the answer, it seems to us, is not doubtful. 
The influence of Brahmoism on the intelligent por- 
tion of Hindu society is becoming less and less. 
Ardent young students may join the sect and boast 
of its excellence, but the heads of families, the lead- 
ers of society, distrust it. Its shifting basis, its 



158 NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 

want of authority, and ignoring of those primeval 
traditions and yearnings which have characterized 
the Hindus throughout their whole history, doom 
it to failure. They have always felt the need of a 
divine revelation, a divine incarnation, and an atone- 
ment for sin ; but Brahmoism offers them nothing 
but a total negation of these things. 

Christianity, on the other hand, points them to 
the true revelation, the true incarnation, the true 
atonement for sin, and satisfies the deepest long- 
ings of their souls. No one can look at what has 
been already accomplished, and at what is now go- 
ing on in South India, without acknowledging that 
Christianity is advancing in the land. If the pres- 
ent condition of the country had been predicted at 
the beginning of this century, it would have been 
pronounced an impossibility. The critic must be 
either ignorant of the facts or ignore them who does 
not see that the South India of to-day is no more the 
South India of seventy years ago than the Britain 
of to-day is the Britain of the last century. 

There are, of course, some dark shades. There 
is the growth of intemperance. There is the spirit 
of indifference to all religions — the effect produced 
by the tone of much of our periodical literature, 
that all religions are equally good and equally bad, 
and that even Britain itself is becoming weary of its 
Christianity. There is the spread of infidel litera- 
ture, the new birth of Hindu learning, and the 
wide dissemination of Hindu books through the 



HAVE MISSIONS BEEN A FAILURE. 1 59 

printing-press. But we have no hesitation in say- 
ing that the time is coming when the whole of 
South India will be evangelized, and that neither 
Brahmoism nor Rationalism will be able to arrest its 
progress. It is not beyond the bounds of possibility 
that one effect of the new forces at work upon the re- 
ligious conceptions of the country will be that a new 
religion will spring up. What form that new relig- 
ion might take it is difficult to foresee. We do not 
think it is likely to be our modern Christianity, al- 
though Christian missions are at the present among 
the most powerful factors in determining what that 
new religion will be. 

Sir William Hunter, in the Nineteenth Century for 
July, 1888, says: ** I think it within reasonable 
probability that some native of India will spring up 
whose life and preaching may lead to an accession 
on a great scale to the Christian church. If such a 
man arises, he will set in motion a mighty move- 
ment whose consequence it is impossible to foresee." 

This is always God's method of working. A 
long, slow, preparatory process, and then suddenly, 
when the fullness of time has come, a great harvest. 
We may expect to hear of whole tribes and com- 
munities abandoning their -superstitions and em- 
bracing Christianity. There is no exaggeration in 
forming such anticipations. They rest on solid 
grounds. Great and efficient preparations have 
been made for securing them. Especially is there 
at the present time, not only in the city of Madras, 



i6o 



NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 



but throughout nearly the whole of South India, 
an intense eagerness of thought on religious ques- 
tions, reminding one of Milton's words, '* A mighty 
and puissant nation arousing itself like a strong 
man after sleep." What is wanted is a pentecost — 
a fresh baptism of the Holy Spirit to touch the dry 
bones of heathenism. 




•i^rsk^V 




